Iberian Peninsula
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Native names
| |
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Geography | |
Location | Europe |
Coordinates | 40°30′N 4°00′W / 40.500°N 4.000°W |
Area | 583,254 km2 (225,196 sq mi) |
Highest elevation | 3,478 m (11411 ft) |
Highest point | Mulhacén |
Administration | |
Demographics | |
Demonym | Iberian |
Population | c. 53 million |
The Iberian Peninsula (/aɪˈbɪəriən/),[a] also known as Iberia,[b] is a peninsula in South-western Europe, defining the westernmost edge of Eurasia. It is divided between Continental Portugal and Peninsular Spain, comprising most of the region, as well as Andorra, Gibraltar, and a small part of Southern France (French Cerdagne). With an area of approximately 583,254 square kilometres (225,196 sq mi),[1] and a population of roughly 53 million,[2] it is the second-largest European peninsula by area, after the Scandinavian Peninsula.
Name
Greek name
The word Iberia is a noun adapted from the
The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the
Roman names
According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia (Greek: Iberia) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river Hiberus (now called Ebro or Ebre). Hiber (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro.[5][13] The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BCE.[14][15][16] Virgil wrote impacatos (H)iberos ("restless Iberi") in his Georgics.[17] The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania.
In Greek and Roman antiquity, the name Hesperia was used for both the Italian and Iberian Peninsula; in the latter case Hesperia Ultima (referring to its position in the far west) appears as form of disambiguation from the former among Roman writers.[18] Also since Roman antiquity, Jews gave the name Sepharad to the peninsula.[19]
As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for 'near' and 'far' Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three
Whatever languages may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees.
Modern name
The modern phrase "Iberian Peninsula" was coined by the French geographer Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent on his 1823 work "Guide du Voyageur en Espagne". Prior to that date, geographers had used the terms 'Spanish Peninsula' or 'Pyrenaean Peninsula'.[20]
Etymology
The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River Ebro (Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin). The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.[21] The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian,[22] uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius[23] states that the "native name" is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination.
The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "Iberian". Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern Basque, the word ibar[24] means "valley" or "watered meadow", while ibai[24] means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names.
Prehistory
Palaeolithic
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by members of the
In the Iberian Peninsula Oldowan stone tools (Mode 1) have been found at the following sites (caves and open-air sites): Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Granada), Barranco León (Orce, Granada), Sima del Elefante (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), Gran Dolina TD6 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) and in other open-air sites.
Acheulean stone tools (Mode 2) have been found in the Middle Pleistocene caves and in open-air sites of the main valleys (i.e., Quaternary terraces of the rivers Ebro, Duero, Arlanzón, Arlanza, Pisuerga, Miño, Tormes, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, etc.)
Mousterian stone tools (Mode 3) have been found in the Middle and Upper Pleistocene caves and in open-air sites of the main valleys.
Around 200,000 BP, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BP, during the Middle Paleolithic period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. Around 37,000 BP, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. Emanating from Southern France, this culture extended into the north of the peninsula. It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.
About 40,000 years ago,
Neolithic
The Iberian
During the
As is the case for most of the rest of Southern Europe, the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians are Early European Farmers who arrived during the Neolithic. The large predominance of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1b, common throughout Western Europe, is testimony to a considerable input from various waves of (predominantly male) Western Steppe Herders from the Pontic–Caspian steppe during the Bronze Age. Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover, with 100% of the paternal ancestry and 40% of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with steppe-related ancestry.[30]
Chalcolithic
In the
According to radiocarbon datings, the Pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 3000 cal. BC and the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic appeared around 2500 cal. BC.[25][26][27]
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age began on the Iberian Peninsula in 2100 cal. BC according to radiocarbon datings of several key sites. According to the period sequence,[25][26][27] the Iberian Bronze Age is divided into three sub-periods or phases with different diagnostic markers (lithic tools, decorated ceramics and types of metal tools): Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age. The Early Bronze Age began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 2100 cal. BC and the Late Bronze Age in 1350 cal. BC. In the three phases of the Iberian Bronze Age, different cultures emerged, which have been defined by regions with typical names: e.g. El Argar, Las Motillas, Bronce Atlántico, Bronce Valenciano, Montelavar, Las Cogotas and others.[25][26]
Preceded by the Chalcolithic sites of Los Millares, the Argaric culture flourished in southeastern Iberia in from 2200 BC to 1550 BC,[36] when depopulation of the area ensued along with disappearing of copper–bronze–arsenic metallurgy.[37] The most accepted model for El Argar has been that of an early state society, most particularly in terms of class division, exploitation, and coercion,[38] with agricultural production, maybe also human labour, controlled by the larger hilltop settlements,[39] and the elite using violence in practical and ideological terms to clamp down on the population.[40] Ecological degradation, landscape opening, fires, pastoralism, and maybe tree cutting for mining have been suggested as reasons for the collapse.[41]
The culture of the motillas developed an early system of groundwater supply plants (the so-called motillas) in the upper Guadiana basin (in the southern meseta) in a context of extreme aridification in the area in the wake of the 4.2-kiloyear climatic event, which roughly coincided with the transition from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age. Increased precipitation and recovery of the water table from about 1800 BC onward should have led to the forsaking of the motillas (which may have flooded) and the redefinition of the relation of the inhabitants of the territory with the environment.[42]
Proto-history
According to radiocarbon datings, the Iron Age began on the Iberian Peninsula in 850/800 cal. BC with the arrival of the Phoenicians, while on the Northern Iberian Plateau it will arrive a little later, in 800-750 cal. BC.[25][26]
By the
As early as the 12th century BCE, the
The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over several centuries. In the 8th century BCE, the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians.
Together with the presence of Phoenician and Greek epigraphy, several paleohispanic scripts developed in the Iberian Peninsula along the 1st millennium BCE. The development of a primordial paleohispanic script antecessor to the rest of paleohispanic scripts (originally supposed to be a non-redundant semi-syllabary) derived from the Phoenician alphabet and originated in Southwestern Iberia by the 7th century BCE has been tentatively proposed.[46]
In the sixth century BCE, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena, Spain).
History
Roman rule
In 218 BCE, during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, the first Roman troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula, known to them as Hispania. After 197, the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition (the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley) were divided by Romans into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior.[47] Local rebellions were quelled, with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hospots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond.[48] The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered in.[49] Further wars of indigenous resistance, such as the Celtiberian Wars and the Lusitanian War, were fought in the 2nd century. Urban growth took place, and population progressively moved from hillforts to the plains.[50]
An example of the interaction of
In addition to mineral extraction (of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world, with production of the likes of gold, silver, copper, lead, and cinnabar), Hispania also produced manufactured goods (sigillata pottery, colourless glass, linen garments) fish and fish sauce (garum), dry crops (such as wheat and, more importantly, esparto), olive oil, and wine.[53]
The process of Romanization spurred on throughout the first century BC.[54] The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic, such as the Sertorian War or the conflict between Caesar and Pompey later in the century.[55]
During their 600-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans introduced the Latin language that influenced many of the languages that exist today in the Iberian peninsula.
Pre-modern Iberia
In the early fifth century, Germanic peoples occupied the peninsula, namely the Suebi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suebi (Quadi and Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day Braga), in 584–585. They would also occupy the province of the Byzantine Empire (552–624) of Spania in the south of the peninsula[citation needed]. However, Balearic Islands remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest, which began in 703 CE and was completed in 902 CE.[56][57]
In 711, a
The Umayyad rulers faced a major
Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the
Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones:
During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the
The Caliphate of Córdoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the
The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part.
Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms.[85] The relatively novel concept of "frontier" (Sp: frontera), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands.[86]
By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World.[87]
During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and León, from Alfonso V and Alfonso VI (crowned Hispaniae Imperator) to Alfonso X and Alfonso XI tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology.[88] Despite the hegemonic ambitions of its rulers and the consolidation of the union of Castile and León after 1230, it should be pointed that, except for a brief period in the 1330s and 1340s, Castile tended to be nonetheless "essentially unstable" from a political standpoint until the late 15th century.[89]
Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal.
Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the "crisis of the Strait", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle ("a kaleidoscope of alliances") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the Marinid Sultanate.[95] The conflict reached a climax in the 1340 Battle of Río Salado, when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender) Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula. The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean.[96]
The 1348–1350 bubonic plague devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation.[97] Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken.[97] The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms.[98]
The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms. After the death of Peter the Cruel of Castile (reigned 1350–69), the House of Trastámara succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother, Henry II (reigned 1369–79). In the kingdom of Aragón, following the death without heirs of John I (reigned 1387–96) and Martin I (reigned 1396–1410), a prince of the House of Trastámara, Ferdinand I (reigned 1412–16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne.[99] The Hundred Years' War also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory.[100] After the accession of Henry III to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo. In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews,[101][102][103][104][105] or even as many as 100,000, according to Jane Gerber.[106] Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to Hasdai Crescas, about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.[107]
During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the
Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with Barcelona (already in the 14th century), Valencia (particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent, Palma de Mallorca (since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples.[111] Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade.[111] Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of Málaga entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile.[112]
By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525 million (Crown of Castile, 4.3 million; Portugal, 1.0 million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3 million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255 million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05 million).[113]
For three decades in the 15th century, the Hermandad de las Marismas, the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the
In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the
The last Muslim stronghold, Granada, was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa.[116] Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the fall of Granada, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion—as many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Spain.[117][118][119][120] Approximately 3,000,000 Muslims fled or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610.[121] Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain.[122] The Jews were also expelled from Sicily and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left.[123]
In 1497, King
A series of case studies by the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University demonstrated that the change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century was one of the few cases of avoidance of the Thucydides Trap.[128]
Modern Iberia
Challenging the conventions about the advent of modernity,
In 1580, after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King
By 1600, the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11.4%, while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14.1%, which were both above the 7.6% European average of the time (edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula).[138] Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms. Castile, extending across a 60% of the territory of the peninsula and having 80% of the population was a rather urbanised country, yet with a widespread distribution of cities.[139] Meanwhile, the urban population in the Crown of Aragon was highly concentrated in a handful of cities: Zaragoza (Kingdom of Aragon), Barcelona (Principality of Catalonia), and, to a lesser extent in the Kingdom of Valencia, in Valencia, Alicante and Orihuela.[139] The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital, Lisbon (which greatly increased its population during the 16th century, from 56,000 to 60,000 inhabitants by 1527, to roughly 120,000 by the third quarter of the century) with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade,[140] followed at great distance by Porto and Évora (both roughly accounting for 12,500 inhabitants).[141] Throughout most of the 16th century, both Lisbon and Seville were among the Western Europe's largest and most dynamic cities.[142]
The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies, seen as a time of recession, crisis or even decline,[143] the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe.[143] A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period (with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital, Madrid), with only New Castile resisting recession in the interior.[144] Regarding the Atlantic façade of Castile, aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe, inter-regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent.[145] In Aragon, suffering from similar problems than Castile, the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession. Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported.[146] However, the crisis was uneven (affecting longer the centre of the peninsula), as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth.[147]
The aftermath of the intermittent 1640–1668 Portuguese Restoration War brought the House of Braganza as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world (bar Ceuta), putting an end to the Iberian Union.
Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, this process was, concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population, relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula, when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial rural flight patterns.[148]
Geography and geology
The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan.[149] It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west, and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip, located in Tarifa is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583,254 km2 and has very contrasting and uneven relief.
The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa to the northernmost extremity at Punta de Estaca de Bares over a distance between lines of latitude of about 865 km (537 mi) based on a degree length of 111 km (69 mi) per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus over a distance between lines of longitude at 40° N latitude of about 1,155 km (718 mi) based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km (56 mi) for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer Strabo.[150]
About three quarters of that rough octagon is the Meseta Central, a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude.[151] It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered Getafe just south of Madrid). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.
Coastline
The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is 3,313 km (2,059 mi), 1,660 km (1,030 mi) on the Mediterranean side and 1,653 km (1,027 mi) on the Atlantic side.
The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at 4,800 m (15,700 ft) on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama seamounts, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by Nazaré Canyon, which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.[citation needed]
Rivers
The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir.[155][156] All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.
The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.
Mountains
The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely
- The Pyrenees and their foothills, the Pre-Pyrenees, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. Aneto in the Maladeta massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
- The Torre de Cerredo, at 2,648 m, is the highest point
- The Pena Trevinca, at 2,127 m, is the highest point
- The Moncayo, at 2,313 m, is the highest point
- The Iberian Plateau into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of Continental Portugal (1,993 m) is located in the Serra da Estrela). Pico Almanzor in the Sierra de Gredosis the highest point, at 2,592 m
- The Montes de Toledo, which also stretches into Portugal from the La Mancha natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is La Villuerca in the Sierra de Villuercas, Extremadura
- The Sierra Morena, which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m, Bañuela is the highest point
- The Alicante Province. It is divided into three subsystems:
- Alicante Province. La Sagrais the highest point at 2,382 m.
- Cádiz Province across Andalusia to the Region of Murcia.[159] The highest point, at 2,027 m (6,650 ft), is Peña de la Cruz in Sierra Arana.
- Penibaetic System, located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén in the Sierra Nevada.[160]
Geology
The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the
The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest lithium deposits belts in Europe (an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent), scattered along the Iberian Massif's Central Iberian Zone and Galicia Tras-Os-Montes Zone .[161] Also in the Iberian Massif, and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe, the peninsula hosts some uranium deposits, largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit.[162]
The Iberian Pyrite Belt, located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula, ranks among the most important volcanogenic massive sulphide districts on Earth, and it has been exploited for millennia.[163]
Climate
The Iberian Peninsula's location and topography, as well as the effects of large atmospheric circulation patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation (roughly from 2,000 mm to 300 mm).[164]
The Iberian Peninsula has three dominant climate types. One of these is the
Political divisions
The current political configuration of the Iberian Peninsula comprises the bulk of Portugal and Spain, the whole landlocked microstate of Andorra, a small part of the French department of Pyrénées-Orientales (French Cerdagne), and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar.
French Cerdagne is on the south side of the Pyrenees mountain range, which runs along the border between France and Spain.[168][169][170] For example, the Segre river, which runs west and then south to meet the Ebro, has its source on the French side. The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula, although the French coastline curves away from the rest of Europe north of the range, which is the reason why Perpignan, which is also known as the capital of Northern Catalonia, is often considered as the entrance to the Iberian Peninsula.
Regarding Portugal and Spain, this chiefly excludes the Macaronesian archipelagos (the Azores and Madeira of Portugal, and the Canary Islands of Spain), the Balearic Islands (Spain), and the Spanish overseas territories in North Africa (most conspicuously the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, as well as unpopulated islets and rocks).
The countries and territories on the Iberian Peninsula:
Arms | Flag | Country / Territory | Capital | Area (mainland) |
Population (mainland) |
% of area |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Andorra | Andorra la Vella | 468 km2 (181 sq mi) |
84,082 | 0.1 | ||
French Cerdagne (France) |
Font-Romeu-Odeillo-Via | 539 km2 (208 sq mi) |
12,035 | 0.1 | ||
Gibraltar (United Kingdom) |
Gibraltar | 7 km2 (2.7 sq mi) |
33,691 | 0.0 | ||
Portugal (mainland) |
Lisbon | 89,015 km2 (34,369 sq mi) |
9,974,165[171] | 15.3 | ||
Spain (mainland) |
Madrid | 493,515 km2 (190,547 sq mi) |
ca. 43,731,572[172] | 84.5 | ||
Total | 583,544 km2 (225,308 sq mi) |
ca. 53,835,545 | 100 |
Cities
The Iberian city network is dominated by three international metropolises (Barcelona, Lisbon, and Madrid) and four regional metropolises (Bilbao, Porto, Seville, and Valencia).[173] The relatively weak integration of the network favours a competitive approach vis-à-vis the inter-relation between the different centres.[173] Among these metropolises, Madrid stands out within the global urban hierarchy in terms of its status as a major service centre and enjoys the greatest degree of connectivity.[174]
Major metropolitan regions
According to Eurostat (2019),[175] the metropolitan regions with a population over one million are listed as follows:
Metropolitan region | State | Population (2019) |
---|---|---|
Madrid | Spain | 6,641,649 |
Barcelona | Spain | 5,575,204 |
Lisbon | Portugal | 3,035,332 |
Valencia | Spain | 2,540,588 |
Seville | Spain | 1,949,640 |
Alicante-Elche-Elda | Spain | 1,862,780 |
Porto
|
Portugal | 1,722,374 |
Málaga-Marbella | Spain | 1,660,985 |
Murcia-Cartagena | Spain | 1,487,663 |
Cádiz | Spain | 1,249,739 |
Bilbao | Spain | 1,137,191 |
Oviedo-Gijón | Spain | 1,022,205 |
Ecology
Forests
The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct ecosystems. Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.
While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.
The endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is a symbol of the Iberian mediterranean forest and of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula altogether.[176]
A new Podarcis lizard species, Podarcis virescens, was accepted as a species by the Taxonomic Committee of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica in 2020. This lizard is native to the Iberian Peninsula and found near rivers in the region.
East Atlantic flyway
The Iberian Peninsula is an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example, curlew sandpipers rest in the region of the Bay of Cádiz.[177]
In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In
Languages
With the sole exception of Basque, which is of unknown origin,[179] all modern Iberian languages descend from Vulgar Latin and belong to the Western Romance languages.[180] Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Basque is the only non-Indo-European surviving language in Iberia and Western Europe.[181]
In modern times, Spanish (the official language of Spain, spoken by the entire 45 million population in the country, the native language of about 36 million in Europe),[182] Portuguese (the official language of Portugal, with a population over 10 million), Catalan (over 7 million speakers in Europe, 3.4 million with Catalan as first language),[183] Galician (understood by the 93% of the 2.8 million Galician population)[183] and Basque (cf. around 1 million speakers)[184] are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming global languages.
Other minority romance languages with some degree of recognition include the several varieties of
English is the official language of Gibraltar. Llanito is a unique language in the territory, an amalgamation of mostly English and Spanish.[187] In Spain, only 54.3% could speak a foreign language, below that of the EU-28 average. Portugal meanwhile achieved 69%, above the EU average, but still below the EU median. Spain ranks 25th out of 33 European countries in the English Proficiency Index.[188]
Transportation
Both Spain and Portugal have traditionally used a non-standard rail gauge (the 1,668 mm
Handicapped by a mountainous range (the
There are four points connecting the Portuguese and Spanish rail networks: Valença do Minho–Tui, Vilar Formoso–Fuentes de Oñoro, Marvão-Beirã–Valencia de Alcántara and Elvas–Badajoz.[194]
The prospect of the development (as part of a European-wide effort) of the Central, Mediterranean and Atlantic rail corridors is expected to be a way to improve the competitiveness of the ports of
In 1980, Morocco and Spain started a joint study on the feasibility of a fixed link (tunnel or bridge) across the Strait of Gibraltar, possibly through a connection of Punta Paloma with Cape Malabata.[196] Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.[197]
A transit point for many submarine cables, the Fibre-optic Link Around the Globe, Europe India Gateway, and the SEA-ME-WE 3 feature landing stations in the Iberian Peninsula.[198] The West Africa Cable System, Main One, SAT-3/WASC, Africa Coast to Europe also land in Portugal.[198] MAREA, a high capacity communication transatlantic cable, connects the north of the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to North America (Virginia), whereas Grace Hopper is an upcoming cable connecting the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to the UK and the US intended to be operative by 2022[199] and EllaLink is an upcoming high-capacity communication cable expected to connect the Peninsula (Sines) to South America and the mammoth 2Africa project intends to connect the peninsula to the United Kingdom, Europe and Africa (via Portugal and Barcelona) by 2023–24.[200][201]
Two gas pipelines: the Pedro Duran Farell pipeline and (more recently) the Medgaz (from, respectively, Morocco and Algeria) link the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula, providing Spain with Algerian natural gas.[202][203] However the contract for the first pipeline expires on 31 October 2021 and—amidst a tense climate of Algerian–Moroccan relations—there are no plans to renew it.[204]
Economy
The official currency across Iberia is the Euro, with the exception of Gibraltar, which uses the Gibraltar Pound (at parity with Sterling).[187]
Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing. Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna and anchovies. Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains. Commodities mined include: iron, gold, coal, lead, silver, zinc, and salt.
Regarding their role in the global economy, both the microstate of Andorra and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar have been described as tax havens.[205]
The Galician region of Spain, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, became one of the biggest entry points of cocaine in Europe, on a par with the Dutch ports.[206] Hashish is smuggled from Morocco via the Strait of Gibraltar.[206]
See also
Notes
- ^ In the local languages:
- Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, Asturian, and Extremaduran: Península Ibérica (mostly rendered in lowercase in Spanish: península ibérica)
- Spanish: [peˈninsulajˈβeɾika] (the same in Asturian and Extremaduran)
- Portuguese: [pɨˈnĩsulɐ iˈβɛɾikɐ]
- Galician: [peˈninsʊlɐ iˈβɛɾikɐ]
- Catalan: Península Ibèrica
- Catalan pronunciation: [pəˈninsulə iˈβɛɾikə]
- Aragonese and Occitan: Peninsula Iberica
- Aragonese: [peninˈsula iβeˈɾika]
- Occitan: [peninˈsylɔ iβeˈɾikɔ, -beˈʀi-]
- French: Péninsule Ibérique [penɛ̃syl ibeʁik]
- Mirandese: Península Eibérica [pɨˈnĩsulɐ ejˈβɛɾikɐ]
- Basque: Iberiar penintsula [iβeɾiar penints̺ula]
- Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, Asturian, and Extremaduran: Península Ibérica (mostly rendered in lowercase in Spanish: península ibérica)
- ^ In the local languages:
- Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian, Extremaduran and Galician: Iberia
- Portuguese and Mirandese: Ibéria
- Catalan and Occitan: Ibèria
- Catalan pronunciation: [iˈβɛɾiə]
- Occitan: [iˈβɛɾiɔ, -ˈbɛʀi-]
- French: Ibérie [ibeʁi]
- Basque: Iberia [iβeɾia]
- ^ Christian forces were usually better armoured than their Muslim counterparts, with noble and non-noble milites and cavallers wearing mail hauberks, separate mail coifs and metal helmets, and armed with maces, cavalry axes, sword and lances.[76]
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External links
- Arioso, Pāolā; Diego Meozzi. "Iberian Peninsula•Links". Stone Pages. Retrieved 5 December 2008.
- Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M.; Oefner, Peter J.; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A.; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M.; Underhill, Peter A. (2004). "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian Peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography". European Journal of Human Genetics. 12 (10): 855–863. S2CID 16765118.
- Loyd, Nick (2007). "IberiaNature: A guide to the environment, climate, wildlife, geography and nature of Spain". Retrieved 4 December 2008.
- de Silva, Luís Fraga. "Ethnologic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (circa 200 B.C.). NEW VERSION #10" (in English, Portuguese, and Latin). Associação Campo Arqueológico de Tavira, Tavira, Portugal. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008.