Illyricum (Roman province)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the Roman province. For the Roman Prefecture, see Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum.
For other uses, see Illyria.
Illyricum
ἐπαρχία Ιλλυρίας
Province of Roman Empire
27 BC–69/79 AD

Province of Illyricum
CapitalSalona
Historical eraAntiquity
• Established
27 BC
• Dissolved during the reign of Vespasian; new provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia created
69/79 AD
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Illyria
Dalmatia (Roman province)
Pannonia

Illyricum /ɪˈlɪrɪkəm/ was a Roman province that existed from 27 BC to sometime during the reign of Vespasian (69–79 AD). The province comprised Illyria/Dalmatia in the south and Pannonia in the north. Illyria included the area along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea and its inland mountains, eventually being named Dalmatia. Pannonia included the northern plains that now are a part of Serbia, Croatia and Hungary. The area roughly corresponded to part or all of the territories of today's Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Slovenia.

Name and etymology

The term Illyrians was used to describe the inhabitants of the area as far back as the late 6th century BC by Hecataeus of Miletus.

Geography

Illyrian wars
.

Illyria/Dalmatia stretched from the

Split, Croatia
) became its capital.

Illyria stretched from the River Drilon (

Cotini, Boii, and Anartii) were Celtic. The Pannonians also had cultural similarities with the Illyrians. Iron mining and production was an important part of their economy in the pre-Roman days.[4][5]

Historical background

Illyrian Wars

Main article:
Illyrian Wars

The Romans fought three Illyrian wars between 229 BC and 168 BC. The

Kingdom of Macedon, the Ardiaei joined the fight against the Romans, but they were quickly defeated (Third Illyrian War, 168 BC). The Romans imposed a tribute equivalent to half the taxes paid to the now deposed king, excluding the cities and tribe which had allied with them.[6]

From the Illyrian Wars to the Roman Civil Wars

In 156 BC the Dalmatae made an attack of the Illyrian subjects of Rome (this source by Appian is considered ambiguous) and refused to see Roman ambassadors. The consul Gaius Marcius Figulus undertook a campaign against them. While he was preparing his camp the Dalmatae overpowered his guards and drove him out of the camp. He fled through the plain as far as the river Naro. He then hoped to catch the Dalmatae unawares as they went back home for the winter, but they had assembled because they had heard of his arrival. Still, he drove them into the city of Delminium. He could not attack this strongly fortified town. Thus he attacked other towns which were partly deserted because of the Dalmatae concentrating their forces at Delminium. He then returned to Delminium and catapulted flaming projectiles damaging and burning significant parts of the town.[7] Livy's Periochae recorded the campaign of Gaius Marcius Figulus and noted that in the next year, 155 BC, the consul Scipio Nasica Corculum subdued the Dalmatae.[8]

In 135 BC two Illyrian tribes, the Ardiaei and the Palarii, raided Roman Illyria while the Romans were busy with the Numantine War in Hispania and the First Servile War in Sicily. The Romans sent ambassadors, but they refused to negotiate. The Romans levied an army of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. The Illyrians sent ambassadors to plea for pardon. Rome asked for indemnities for the people who had been attacked. Since the Illyrians were slow to respond, the consul Servius Fulvius Flaccus marched against them. According to Appian this was only a minor expedition.[9] It is likely that by Roman Illyria Appian meant four coastal towns which had a large Roman population.

In 129 BC the consul

Saturnian verse, two fragments of which were found in 1906.[11]

In a passage Appian wrote that in 119 BC the consul

Iapydes and the Segestani revolted again shortly afterward.[9] Caecilius Metellus was given the agnomen
Dalmanticus,

In 115 BC the consul

Gallia Cisalpina against the Ligures in the west and against the Carni and Taurisci (two Gallic tribes which lived in today's Slovenia) in the east.[12]

In 113 BC the consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo was sent to face an invasion by the Cimbri (a Germanic tribe) which had entered into Illyricum and then into Noricum. He was defeated at the Battle of Noreia in Noricum.[13][14]

In 78–76 BC a certain Gaius Cosconius was sent into Illyricum as proconsul. He fought there for two years, reduced a great part of Dalmatia and seized Salona (near today's Solin, near Split, Croatia), one of the major towns in Dalmatia.[15][16] Later the Roman settlement of Colonia Martia Iulia Salona was founded, probably after the Roman civil wars.

Caesar's governorship

In 59 BC the

Gallia Cisalpina (in northern Italy) and Illyricum and the command of three legions based at Aquileia for a period of five years.[17] When the proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis
died, the senate also gave Caesar the proconsulship of that province and the command on a legion which was stationed there, also for five years.

Caesar took on his proconsulships in 58 BC. Only Gallia Narbonensis was a province in the sense of a formal administrative unit. The other two were provinces in the sense of areas of military command which were assigned to high military commanders in areas where there were rebellions or threats of attacks. In the past

Iapydes (who lived east of Istrian Peninsula and inland from the Liburnians; the latter lived on a stretch of the Adriatic coast south of the Istrian peninsula and between the rivers Arsia (Raša) and Titius (Krka
). The Carni settled in their area around 186 BC, invaded the plain on north-eastern Italy and founded the fortified town of Akileja. The Romans forced the Carni back to the mountains. They destroyed their settlement and founded Aquileia nearby, which was named after Akileja. It was also about 6 km from where an estimated 12,000 Taurisci had tried to settle in 183 BC. For the foundation of Aquileia 3,000 families were settled there. In 169 BC 1,500 more families were settled there. This settlement was grown into a sizable town and three legions were stationed there because of its strategic importance for the defence of northern Italy.

The fact that Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum were the areas of command initially assigned to Caesar could indicate that Caesar had an eye on Illyricum to attain military glory with which he could bolster his political clout in Rome.

Pirustae claimed that none of the raids were due to public decisions and offered compensation. Caesar asked for hostages and said that if they were not handed over he would wage war. The Pirustae complied and Caesar appointed arbitrators to assess the damages done to the other peoples and set a penalty. He returned to Italy and then went to Gaul.[18]

Illyricum during Caesar's Civil War

Appian wrote that while Caesar was in Gaul the Dalmatae seized

civil war. This suggests that this event occurred in late 50 BC, just before the beginning of this war.[19]

In January 49 BC Caesar started a civil war against the forces of the senate led by

Dyrrachium (Durrës, Albania) to rejoin Pompey.[20]

In the summer 48 BC Caesar sent Quintus Cornificius to Illyricum as a

cohorts (which would amount to about 7,800 soldiers) and 3,000 cavalry and that, again, being busy with the civil war, Caesar did not pursue the matter further.[19]

Marcus Octavius sought to take advantage of this to seize Illyria. Cornificius asked Publius Vatinius, who was in Brundisium (Brindisi, southern Italy), to come to his aid and informed him that Octavius was making alliances with the locals and attacking Caesarian garrisons, sometimes with his fleet and sometimes with land forces, using native troops—the Caesarians were Caesar's supporters. Vatinius asked a Caesarian lieutenant in Greece to send him a fleet, but this was taking too long. He armed some civilian ships whose size was poorly suited for fighting and added them to the few warships he had and left for Illyria. He did not pursue Octavius so as not to be delayed. Instead, he recovered some coastal towns which had sided with Octavius and by-passed others, proceeding as quickly as he could. In this way he managed to force Octavius to abandon his attack on Epidaurus (Epidaurum in Latin, modern Cavtat, near Dubrovnik, Croatia) with his approach. Octavius thought that his fleet was superior to the small ships of Vatinius and sailed to the island of Tauris. Vatinius pursued him without knowing that he had gone to that island. While the sea was rough he was caught unawares when the fleet of Octavius appeared ready for battle and was superior in formation. Vatinius decided to try his luck and attacked first, charging Octavius' flagship with one of his warships. The crush was hard and the ram of the latter was smashed away. The battle was fought at close range in narrow sea. Vatinius had the better and at nightfall the remnants of the enemy fleet fled. The next day Vatinius refitted his ships and 85 captured ships and the day after that he set off for the island of Issa (Vis, Croatia), thinking that Octavius had retreated there. When he got there the islanders surrendered and told him that Octavius had left for Sicily. Having cleared the Adriatic Sea, he returned to Brundisium.[22]

In 45 BC Caesar was planning a war against

Dyrrhachium (Durrës, Albania). Once more Caesar did not pursue the matter further. In Appian's opinion, Caesar had put off dealing with the Illyrians resolutely for fourteen years because of his Gallic Wars, his civil war and his planned war with Parthia even though he had given the command over Illyria as well as the two Gauls for ten years, and despite having wintered there. This was even regardless of the fact that at times the Illyrians plundered north-eastern Italy.[23]

The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC led to a conflict between the leaders of the plot murder him,

propraetorship which had been assigned to him prior to the change made by the senate. His predecessor, Quintus Hortenius, joined Brutus. Vatinius marched on Dyrrachium and seized it before Brutus got there. However, the soldiers of his three legions (minus the lost cohorts), who disliked him, defected to Brutus, who then went on to engage Gaius Antonius who was in Apollonia (near Fier, Albania). He won over the troops of Antonius (his seven cohorts and a legion under his lieutenant, Lucius Piso) as well.[24][25][26][27]

The campaigns of Octavian in Illyricum (35–33 BC)

Caesar's Civil War, the Liberators' Civil War and the resistance against the second triumvirate which

Gaius Asinius Pollio suppressed a rebellion of the Parthini after a few battles.[29]

In 35 BC Octavian campaigned against the

Iapydes who had carried out raids against Aquileia, plundered Tergestus (Trieste) and had destroyed Pola (Pula) in the previous year. He marched along a steep and rugged road. The Iapydes hid in the woods and ambushed him. However, Octavian had sent contingents to occupy the ridges on both sides of the road. These descended on them and defeated them. They then abandoned the town of Terponus and fled to the thickets. Octavian seized the city, but did not burn it, hoping that they would surrender, which they did. He then advanced on Metulus (near Ogulin), which was the main town of the Iapydes. It was defended by 3,000 men who defeated the Romans who surrounded the walls. Octavian began a full siege. When its battered walls begun to crumble the Metulians built another one inside. The Romans burnt the abandoned wall and built a mound by the second one and threw four bridges on top of it. Octavian ordered some if his men to go to the back of the town to divert attention. The enemy destroyed three of the bridges. Since his soldiers panicked, Octavian crossed the bridge together with Agrippa and Hiero, two of his lieutenants, and one of his bodyguards. The soldiers followed suit. The bridge fell under their weight. Octavian was injured in the right leg and in both arms. He had more bridges built. This determination discouraged the Metulians, who surrendered. The next day they sent messengers who offered to give fifty hostages and promised to receive a garrison and to assign to the Romans the highest hills while they would occupy the lower ones. When the garrison entered and ordered them to lay down their arms they shut their wives and children in their council chamber and placed guards with orders to set fire to the building if they lost the fight they decided to undertake. They attacked from the lower positions and they were routed. The guards set fire to the council chamber. Many of the women killed themselves and their children while others jumped into the fire holding their children. The city burned completely. The rest of the Iapydes surrendered and came under Roman subjection for the first time. Octavian left and the Poseni rebelled. Marcus Helvius was sent against them. He conquered them, executed the leaders of the revolt and sold the rest into slavery.[30]

Octavian marched on the

Siscia. It is now modern Sisak in Croatia
.

Cassius Dio wrote that after the fall of this city the rest of Pannonia surrendered. After this Octavian left Fufius Geminus there with a small force and returned to Rome. He set out to lead an expedition into Britain and had already reached Gaul in the winter of 34 BC when some of the newly conquered peoples in Pannonia and the Dalmatians rose in revolt.

decimation. The spared men were forced to subsist on barley instead of wheat for that summer. Testimus disbanded his troops and told them to scatter. The Romans did not pursue them.[33] Cassius Dio wrote that Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa had conducted a campaign against the Dalmatians prior to this campaign.[34]

Still in 34 BC, the Romans seized the town of Sunodium at the edge of the forest in which the army of Aulus Gabinius had been entrapped by the Dalmatians in a long and deep gorge between two mountains. After Octavian had burned Sunodium the Dalmatians laid an ambush. However, he was protected by soldiers he had sent to the summits of the mountains to follow him on either side while he passed through the gorge. He cut down trees and captured and burned all the towns he found on his way. In 33 BC he besieged the city of Setovia. An enemy force came to its assistance, but he prevented it from entering the place. Octavian was struck by a stone on the knee and was confined for several days. He returned to Rome to take up his consulship and got Titus Statilius to continue the siege. He then went back to Dalmatia. The Dalmatians were cut off from foreign supplies and were hungry. They met Octavian while he was on his way and surrendered. He demanded 700 of their children as hostages, and the standards of the Roman legions which had been taken from Aulus Gabinius when he was routed. They complied and also promised to pay the tribute which had been in arrears since the time of Julius Caesar. Octavian then moved on the Derbani, who also sued for peace, gave hostages, and promised to pay the tribute in arrears. Other tribes did the same on his approach. He could not reach some tribes due to sickness. These gave no hostages and made no treaties. Appian wrote that it seemed that they were subjugated later and that Octavian subdued the whole Illyrian country, including both the tribes which had rebelled and those which had never before been under Roman rule.[35] It is likely that Appian was referring to just Illyria/Dalmatia, rather or the whole of that was to become the province of Illyricum. With regard to Pannonia, some historians think that Octavian probably conquered the southern part of Pannonia and that the northern part was conquered in the Pannonian War (see below).[36]

Appian also wrote that Octavian overcame the Oxyaei, the Perthoneatae, the Bathiatae, the

Iapyde tribes which lived on the Alps, surrendered on Octavian's approach. He took the city of the Arrepini, the largest and most warlike of the Iapydes, who had fled to the woods. He did not burn it hoping that they would surrender, which they did. He also seized the islands of Melite (Mljet) and Melaina Corcyra (Korčula) and destroyed its settlements because its inhabitants practiced piracy. He executed the young men and sold the rest into slavery. He deprived the Liburnians of their ships because they practiced piracy.[37]

Roman province

After his campaigns in Illyricum, Octavian fought a war against

Cleopatra VII of Egypt in 31/30 BC. He won and became the sole ruler of Rome, instituting government reforms which made him the first Roman emperor. Illyricum became a province as a formal administrative unit in 27 BC, as part of the settlement by which the Roman senate formalised Octavian's personal rule. He received the honorary title of Augustus, and modern historians call the ensuing period the Augustan age. The settlement divided the empire into senatorial and imperial provinces. The former were under the authority of the senate, which chose their governors from its own ranks. The latter were under Augustus, who appointed their governors. Augustus held the frontier provinces, which hosted the bulk of the Roman troops. Initially Illyricum was a senatorial propraetorial province. Rebellions in the province showed the necessity of maintaining a strong force there and in 11 BC it became an imperial province under the governorship of Publius Cornelius Dolabella
.

The administrative organisation of Illyricum was carried out late in the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and early in the reign of Tiberius (14–37 AD). Tiberius made initial arrangements in the last weeks of the Batonian war (see below). This work was interrupted by a mutiny of the Roman troops in 14 AD, but was then resumed. We have a fairly detailed picture of the administrative arrangements of Illyricum through

Scardona (Skradin), Salona and Narona (near Metković). The conventus Salonitanus was subdivided into 5 civitates and 927 decuriae. The conventus Naronitianus was subdivided into 13 civitates and 540 decuriae. The conventus Scardonitanus was subdivided into 14 civitates. There is no information for its decuriae. In the more urbanised coastal area towns with large Greek-speaking populations and may inhabitants from Italy were organised as municipia (self-governing towns) or coloniae (Italian settlements) and had their own council. Some of the local communities enjoyed some privileges and some Librunian ones enjoyed Italian rights. In the less urbanised interior the administration relied exclusively on the civitates. The jurisdiction of the governor of Illyricum was limited to the coastal area. The inland districts had their own governors in the form of the praefecti civitatum of the civitates. Pannonia was subdivided into 14 civitates. Again, there is no information about the decuriae. It was also a military district under the prefect of Pannonia, who was in charge of the legions stationed there.[39]

Dalmatia had considerable strategic and economic importance for the Romans. It possessed a number of important commercial ports along its coastline, and had

Iader (Zadar), Salona (Solin, on the outskirts of Split), Narona (near Metković), and Epidaurus (Epidaurum in Latin, modern Cavtat, near Dubrovnik).[41] The capital Salona was protected by two military camps at Burnum and Delminium
.

The Pannonian War (14–10 BC)

From 14 BC to 10 BC there was a series of rebellions in southern Pannonia and northern Dalmatia which Roman writers referred to as bellum pannomicum (the Pannonian war). We have very little information about these events. Most of it comes from brief accounts by Cassius Dio and passing references by other authors. We are not told what the causes were either. The Roman sources had little interest in Illyria from the campaigns of Augustus in 35–33 BC to 16 BC. Cassius Dio wrote that in that year the governor of Illyria for 17–16 BC,

Roman province of Macedonia (Greece). At the same time a civil war broke out in Thrace. Therefore, there was instability on the eastern Alps and in the Balkan Peninsula. In 15 BC the Romans conquered the Scordisci and annexed Noricum. They also conducted other operations further west on the Alps against the Rhaeti and Vindelici.[42] The Roman military operations in Illyricum might have been started by Marcus Vinicius
, the governor for 14–13 BC. The Pannonian war led to Illyricum being transferred from being a senatorial province to being an imperial province.

Velleius Paterculus wrote that the Pannonian war started by

Breuci.[47] In 11 BC Tiberius fought and defeated both the Dalmatians and the Pannonians. Later in the year, as already mentioned, Illyricum became an imperial province under the control of Augustus. In the winter 11/10 BC the Dacians crossed the frozen Danube and plundered the Pannonians. Some Dalmatian communities rebelled against the payment of a tribute. Tiberius, who was in Gaul, had to return to confront this. In 10 BC there were repeated uprisings in both Pannonia and Dalmatia which Tiberius suppressed.[48]

Cassius Dio referred to all of these conflicts as rebellions. Dzino argues that it is therefore unlikely that they involved any conquests. The relations of the Romans with locals in frontier areas involved alliance treaties and treaties with client states, both of which entailed nominal independence. The breaking of these treaties was considered as a rebellion and as something which had to be suppressed. Augustus in his propagandistic writing stated that under Tiberius’ command Rome extended her sphere to Pannonian peoples where the Roman army had never been before and that Augustus extended the boundaries of Illyricum to the banks of the River Danube. However, Suetonius implied that this extension to the banks of this river occurred only after the Batonian War (see below).[49] It is likely that in the aftermath of the Pannonian war Roman military presence in southern Pannonia increased. Dzino argues that it is likely that the local communities acted as a compact anti-Roman block and that there may have been pro- and anti-Roman factions. Some may have surrendered peacefully and some of them may have been pro-Roman all along. The communities of the region relied on kinship relationships, rather than formal state institutions. This may have led to political competition. Being friendly to the Romans or challenging them could have involved manoeuvres by local elites to strengthen their power-base. Acquiescence or opposition to the Romans could involve often unpredictable contests over political positions locally.[50]

Batonian War (6–9 AD)

Main article: Bellum Batonianum

The Batonian War (bellum batonianum in Latin) was a large scale rebellion which was led by

Aulus Caecina Severus, the governor of the neighbouring Roman province of Moesia. Bato the Daesitiate marched on Salona, in Dalmatia, but was defeated by Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus, the governor of Illyricum. Bato then went east to join the other Bato and the two of them occupied Mount Alma (Mount Fruška Gora, Serbia, just north of Sirmium). They were defeated by a Thracian cavalry detachment of Rhoemetalces (the king of the Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace) which supported the Romans. The Dalmatians overran the territory of the Roman allies and drew many more tribes into the revolt. Tiberius (the future emperor), who was in charge of the Roman army marched on them. However, they avoided pitched battles and kept moving around, causing great devastation. Facing an enemy with avoided bitched battle and used guerrilla tactics, Tiberius conducted counterinsurgency operations.[51][52]

According to

Roman Province of Macedonia (Greece) and the third fought in their home territories. They executed their plan swiftly. They massacred Roman civilians and a sizable veteran contingent who were helpless in this remote area. They seized Macedonia and the pillaged everywhere. Thus, in this version the rebellion seemed to have a plan and the Dalmatians and the Breuci seemed to have acted in concert from the beginning. In Cassius Dio, instead, Bato the Daesitiate initially had a few men and his success increased his forces. After his failure to take Salona he allied with the other Bato. Tiberius divided the Roman army into several divisions to evade the united forces of the rebels. Outposts were placed to blockade them, to prevent them from breaking through and to disrupt their supplies. The situation in Illyricum, which was next to Italy, created panic in Rome and even Augustus was fearful. Levies were held all over Italy. The veterans were recalled. Rich families were ordered to supply freedmen compulsorily in proportion to their income. Augustus warned that the rebels could reach Rome in ten days if drastic action was not taken.[53]

In 7 AD Augustus sent

Roman province of Asia, three and two legions respectively). They surrounded the five legions, their auxiliary troops and the Thracian cavalry and almost inflicted a fatal defeat. The Thracian cavalry was routed and the allied cavalry fled. The legions suffered casualties, but they then rallied and won the day. In Cassius Dio’ version, instead, the two Batos went to wait for the arrival of Caecina Severus. He did not mention Plautius Silvanus. They attacked him unexpectedly when he was encamped near the Volcaean marshes. They were defeated. After this battle the Roman army was divided into detachments to overrun many parts of the country at once. The rebels withdrew to mountain fortresses from which they launched raids whenever they could. Aulus Caecina Severus and Marcus Plautius Silvanus joined Tiberius and a huge army was assembled. As mentioned, they had five legions. Tiberius also had five legions (three in Pannonia and two in Dalmatia). Tiberius decided to send the newly arrived armies back because the army was too large to be manageable. He escorted them with his troops. He then returned to Siscia at the beginning of a very hard winter.[54][55]

In 8 AD the Dalmatians and the Pannonians wanted to sue for peace due to famine and disease, but they were prevented from doing so by the rebels, who had no hope of being spared by the Romans and continued to resist. Tiberius had pursued a policy of scorched earth to starve the Pannonians. According to Cassius Dio, Bato the Breucian overthrew Pinnes, the king of the Breuci. He became suspicious of his subject tribes and demanded hostages from the Pannonian garrisons. Bato the Daesitiate defeated him in battle and pinned him in a stronghold. He was handed over to Bato the Daesitiate and he was executed. After this many Pannonians rose in revolt. Marcus Plautius Silvanus conducted a campaign against them, conquered the Breuci and won over other tribes without a battle. Bato the Daesitiate withdrew from Pannonia, occupied the passes leading to Dalmatia and ravaged Dalmatia. In Pannonia there was some brigandage.[56] Velleius Paterculus, wrote that the harsh winter brought rewards because in the following summer all of Pannonia sought peace. The Pannonians laid down their arms at the River Bathinus. Bato was made a prisoner and Pinnes gave himself up.[57][56]

In 9 AD the war was restricted to Dalmatia. Velleius Paterculus wrote that Augustus gave the chief command of all the forces to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. In the summer Lepidus made his way to Tiberius through areas which had not been affected by the war. He was attacked by the locals who had not been weakened by fighting. Lepidus defeated them, ravaged the fields, and burnt houses. He succeeded in reaching Tiberius. This campaign ended the war. Two Dalmatian tribes, the Perustae and Daesitiate, who were almost unconquerable because of their mountain strongholds, the narrow passes in which they lived and their fighting spirit, were almost exterminated. Cassius Dio wrote Germanicus conducted some operations in Dalmatia and seized several towns. Tiberius then split the army into three divisions. He sent two of them to subdue areas of Dalmatia and he went in search of Bato the Daesitiate third one. Tiberius chased the fugitive Bato around the country. He finally besieged him at Adetrium, near Salona. This was on a rock and was surrounded by steep ravines. After a long siege he managed to storm the place. Bato promised to surrender if he and his followers would be pardoned. Tiberius agreed. According to Cassius Dio Tiberius asked Bato why his people had rebelled. He replied: "You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." It is uncertain if this quote can be attributed to Bato, however, due to the habit of ancient writers of creating fictitious quotes and attributing them to historical figures.[58][59][60]

Regions of the province and its later dissolution

The earliest writing which indicates that the province of Illyricum comprised Dalmatia and Pannonia is when Velleius Paterculus mentions Gaius Vibius Postumus was the military commander of Dalmatia in AD 9, towards the end of the Batonian War.[61] It seems that officially the province of Illyricum comprised Upper (Superius) and Lower (Inferius) Illyricum. A transcript of an inscription of a monument honouring Publius Cornelius Dolabella at Epidaurum (Cavtat, near Dubrovnik) attests that Dolabella was appointed governor of Illyricum shortly before Augustus’ death and that the statue was erected by the towns of Upper Illyricum, which implies the existence of an Upper and Lower Illyricum.[62] However, no inscriptions attesting a Lower Illyricum have been found as yet. Dalmatia was called Upper Illyricum. Whilst the names Dalmatia and Pannonia were used in common parlance, it seems that Upper Illyricum (Dalmatia) and Lower Illyricum (Pannonia) were the official names of the two regions. The provincial governor resided in Salona in Dalmatia and governed Upper Illyricum. Lower Illyricum was a military district and a military commander was in charge of this area and its three legions and performed administrative functions as something like a deputy governor.[63]

Writing in the winter of AD 57–58,[64] the Apostle Paul refers to Illyricum in his Letter to the Romans as the westernmost point of his missionary travels so far.[65] The letter reflects his intention in due course to travel to Rome.

The province of Illyricum was eventually dissolved and replaced by two smaller provinces: Dalmatia (the southern area) and Pannonia (the northern and Danubian area). It is unclear when this happened. Kovác noted that an inscription on the base of a statue of Nero erected between 54 and 68 AD attests that it was erected by the veteran of a legion stationed in Pannonia and argues that this is the first

military diploma published in the late 1990s, dated July 61 AD, units of auxiliaries from the Pannonian part of the province were mentioned as being stationed in Illyricum.[68] Some other diplomas from the reign of Nero attest the same.[69] Therefore, Šašel-Kos supports the notion that the province was dissolved during the reign of Vespasian (79–89 AD)[63]

The Roman province of Illyricum comprised Dalmatia and Pannonia.

Diocletian's reforms: the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum

In 293 AD the emperor

Balkan Peninsula, including Greece, except for the diocese of Thrace (in modern south-eastern Bulgaria, north-eastern Greece and European Turkey). It also included Crete and the Greek islands in the north and the southwest of the Aegean Sea, and Noricum. The diocese of Pannonia was subdivided into the provinces of Pannonia Prima, Secunda, Savia and Veleria (the north, southeast, southwest and west of Pannonia respectively), Dalmatia, Noricum Ripense ("along the river", the northern part, which was crossed by the river Danube) and Noricum Mediterraneum (the southern part).[70] The capital of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica, northern Serbia
). Under the tetrarchy it was headed by Galerius. The praetorian prefecture survived until the early 7th century.

Military importance

Pannonia was a very valuable source of military manpower for the entire empire. From the 3rd to the 6th century some of the most useful troops were recruited from Pannonia, Dalmatia, Moesia and Roman

Dyrrhachium (Durrës, Albania). Justinian I (reigned 527–565) was born in Tauresium, in the province of Dardania in the Diocese of Dacia (20 kilometres [12 miles] southeast of Skopje in today's North Macedonia).[75]
Justinian I was the last Latin emperor of this empire. From then on all the emperors were Greek.

See also

References

  1. ^ Wilkes, J. The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe), (1996) p. 208
  2. ^ Chapot, V; Parker, E. E. The Roman World History of civilization (1997), p. 268
  3. ^ Smith, W. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
  4. ^ Mocsy, S. F, "Pannonia and Upper Moesia", in A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, p. 152
  5. ^ Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe), p. 203
  6. ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 45.26.11-15
  7. ^ a b Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 11
  8. ^ Livy, Periochae, 47.9
  9. ^ a b c Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 10
  10. ^ Livy, Periochae, 59.20
  11. ^ Inscriptions from the time of the Roman Republic, translated by E.H.Warmington (1940) CIL I² 652
  12. ^ Cornelius Nepos, De Viris Illustribus, 72.7
  13. ^ Appian, The Gallic Wars, 13
  14. ^ Strabo, Geographia, V, 1.8
  15. ^ Eutropius, Compendium of Roman History, 6.4
  16. ^ Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans, 5.23
  17. OCLC 882513995
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  18. ^ Julius Caesar, The Gallic Wars, 3.7, 5.1
  19. ^ a b Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars 12
  20. ^ Caesar, The Civil War, 3.6
  21. ^ Julius Caesar, The Alexandrian War, 42-43
  22. ^ Julius Caesar, The Alexandrian War, 44-47
  23. ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars 12-13
  24. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 47.21
  25. ^ Appian, The Civil Wars, 4.57, 58, 75
  26. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.69
  27. ^ Cicero, Philippics, 10.13
  28. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.78.2
  29. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 48.41.7
  30. ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 10.18-22
  31. ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 10.22-24
  32. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 49.37.7
  33. ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 10.24-27
  34. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 49.38.3
  35. ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 10.27
  36. ^ Dzino, D., Bellum Pannonicum: The Roman armies and indigenous communities in southern Pannonia 16‑9 BC, p. 471 [1]
  37. ^ Appian, The Foreign Wars, The Illyrian Wars, 10.16
  38. ^ Pliny, Natural History, 2.25-26, 28
  39. ^ Dzino, D., Illyricum in Roman Politics, pp. 162–168
  40. ^ Wilkes. J., The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe), p. 224: "... governor of Dalmatia forced the natives to wash out the gold, though they were too ignorant to appreciate its value, and there was an imperial bureau for the Dalmatian gold mines based in Salona."
  41. ^ Chapot, V.; Parker, E. A, The Romans, World History of civilization (1997), p. 268
  42. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.20.1‑3
  43. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.96.2‑3
  44. ^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History, 2.24
  45. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.24.3, 28.1-2
  46. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.31.2-3
  47. ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, 9.2
  48. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 54.36.2 3, 55.2.4
  49. ^ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, 16
  50. ^ Dzino, D., "Bellum Pannonicum: The Roman armies and indigenous communities in southern Pannonia 16‑9 BC", pp. 471–472 [2]
  51. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29
  52. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.110, 112.1-2
  53. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29-30
  54. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.29.6, 31.2, 32.3
  55. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History 2.112.3-6, 113
  56. ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.34.4-7
  57. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.114.4
  58. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 56.11-16
  59. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.114.5, 115-1-4
  60. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 55.34.4-7; 56.11-16
  61. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, 2.116.3
  62. ^ CIL III, 1741 = ILS 938
  63. ^ a b Šašel-Kos, "Pannonia or Lower Illyricum?" Tyche, Band 25 (2010), pp. 123–130
  64. ^ Halley, Henry H. Halley's Bible Handbook: an Abbreviated Bible Commentary, 23rd edition, Zondervan Publishing House (1962)
  65. ^ Romans 15:19
  66. ^ Kovác, P., "A Pisidian Veteran and the Forst Mention of Pannonis", Tyche, 22 (2007), pp. 99–107. PL1
  67. ^ Kovács, P., "Some Notes on the division of Illyiricum", in Piso, I., (ed.), Die Romischen Provinzen. Bergriff und Gundung (2008), pp. 237–248
  68. ^ Dusanic, S., "An Early Diploma Milirare", Starinar (1998), p. 51–62 = AE 1998, 1056
  69. ^ Holder R., P Roman Military Diplomas IV (2003), no. 202
  70. ^ Talbert, R., Atlas of Classical History (1989), p. 175
  71. OCLC 877412786
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  72. ^ Southern, P., Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies), (1998), p. 245
  73. ^ Croke, B., Count Marcellinus and his chronicle (2001), p. 54
  74. ^ Bury, J., The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians (2000), p. 69.
  75. ISBN 1605204056

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