Iltutmish
Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish | |
---|---|
Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Chief consort)[2][non-primary source needed ]
Malikah-i-JahanRaziya Sultana Muiz ud din Bahram Ruknuddin Firuz Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (possibly a grandson[4][5]) Ghiyasuddin Muhammad Shah[6] Jalaluddin Masud Shah[7] Shihabuddin Muhammad [8] Qutbuddin Muhammad [9] unnamed daughter[10] Shazia Begum [11] [non-primary source needed] | |
Father | Ilam Khan |
Religion | Sunni Islam |
Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (
Sold into slavery as a young boy, Iltutmish spent his early life in
After Muhammad of Ghor's assassination in 1206, Aibak became a practically independent ruler of the Ghurid territories in India, with his headquarters at Lahore. After Aibak's death, Iltutmish dethroned his unpopular successor Aram Shah in 1211, and set up his capital at Delhi. He then consolidated his rule by subjugating several dissidents, and fighting against other former Ghurid slaves, such as Taj al-Din Yildiz and Nasir ad-Din Qabacha. During 1225–1227, he subjugated Aibak's former subordinates who had carved out an independent kingdom headquartered at Lakhnauti in eastern India. He also asserted his authority over Ranthambore (1226) and Mandore (1227), whose Hindu chiefs had declared independence after Aibak's death.
In the early 1220s, Iltutmish had largely stayed away from the Indus Valley region, which was embroiled in conflicts between Qabacha, the
Iltutmish organized the administration of the Sultanate, laying the foundation for its dominance over northern India until the Mughal invasion. He introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital – the two basic coins of the Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains. He set up the Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary. He erected many buildings, including mosques, khanqahs (monasteries), dargahs (shrines or graves of influential people) and a reservoir (hawz) for pilgrims.
Names and titles
The name "Iltutmish" literally means "maintainer of the kingdom" in Turkic. Since vowel marks are generally omitted in the historical Persian language manuscripts, different 19th-20th century writers read Iltutmish's name variously as "Altamish", "Altamsh", "Iyaltimish", and "Iletmish".[12] However, several verses by contemporary poets, in which the Sultan's name occurs, rhyme properly only if the name is pronounced "Iltutmish". Moreover, a 1425-1426 (AH 829) Tajul-Ma'asir manuscript shows the vowel "u" in the Sultan's name, which confirms that "Iltutmish" is the correct reading of the name.[13]
Iltutmish's inscriptions mention several of his grandiloquent titles, including:[14]
- Maula muluk al-arab wa-l-ajam ("King of the Kings of the Arabs and the Persians"), a title used by earlier Muslim kings including the Mas'ud
- Maula muluk al-turk wa-l'ajam, Saiyid as-salatin al-turk wa-l'ajam, Riqab al-imam maula muluk al-turk wa-l-ajam ("Master of Kings of the Turks and the Persians")
- Hindgir ("Conqueror of Hind")
- Sultan Salatin ash-Sharq ("the Sultan of the Sultans of the East")
- Shah-i-Sharq ("King of the East")
- Shahanshah ("King of Kings"), a title of the emperors of Persia
In
Early life
Outside India
Iltutmish was born in an affluent family: his father Ilam Khan was a leader of the Ilbari
According to Minhaj, as a young boy, Iltutmish was brought to
Minhaj states that the family of Sadr-i Jahan treated Iltutmish well, and later sold him to a merchant called Bukhara Haji. Iltutmish was subsequently sold to a merchant called Jamaluddin Muhammad Chust Qaba, who brought him to
In Qutb al-Din's service
Subsequently, Iltutmish's master Jamaluddin returned to Ghazni, where Mu'izz ad-Din's slave-commander
Iltutmish rose rapidly in Qutb al-Din's service, attaining the rank of Amir-i Shikar (superintendent of the hunt). After the Ghurid conquest of
In 1205–1206, Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din summoned Qutb al-Din's forces for his campaign against the
Ascension and consolidation of power
After Mu'izz ad-Din's death in 1206, Qutb al-Din became the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, which evolved independent of the former Ghurid Empire. In 1210, when Qutb al-Din Aibak died unexpectedly in Lahore during a sport game, the local nobles appointed Aram Shah as his successor to prevent instability in the kingdom.[20] However, the nobles in other parts of the Sultanate opposed this decision, and proposed Iltutmish as an alternative, because Aibak used to call him a son, and because he had a distinguished record of service. These nobles, led by the military justiciar (Amir-i Dad) Ali-yi Ismail, invited him to occupy the throne.[21]
Iltutmish marched to Delhi, where he seized the power, and later defeated Aram Shah's forces.[22] Some nobles rebelled against his seizure of power, but Iltutmish subjugated them, and had many of them beheaded.[23]
Minhaj-i-Siraj states that after Aibak's death, the former Ghurid dominions of India (Mamalik-i-Hindustan) had been divided into four parts, centred at:[24][25]
- Delhi, controlled by Iltutmish
- Sindh, controlled by Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, a former Ghurid slave, who had been muqta (provincial governor) of Uch since 1204
- Lakhnauti, controlled by Ali Mardan Khalji, a former governor who proclaimed independence and styled himself as Sultan Ala al-Din
- Lahore, contested between Qabacha, Yildiz, and Iltutmish
Delhi's dependencies
Several Muslim officers, who administered Delhi's dependencies during Aibak's reign, did not recognize Iltutmish's authority. According to
By the time of Iltutmish's ascension, Delhi's hold over various
Defeat of Yildiz
The Ghurid capital of Ghazni was controlled by Taj al-Din Yildiz, a former slave who claimed to be the rightful successor to the Ghurid emperor. After Iltutmish suppressed the rival claimants to the throne, Yildiz sent him a royal umbrella (chatr) and a baton (durbash): these gifts implied that Iltutmish was a subordinate ruler. Iltutmish did not want an immediate confrontation, and accepted these gifts.[19] Iltutmish's earliest inscription, dated October 1211, styles him as a subordinate king - al-Malik al-Mu'azzam ("the great chief"), rather than as an imperial Sultan.[25][26]
Meanwhile, taking advantage of the succession conflict between Aram Shah and Iltutmish, Qabacha had captured Lahore in 1211.
Yildiz sent a message to Iltutmish, declaring that he was the real successor of Mu'izz ad-Din and thus, had claims to the former Ghurid territories in India. According to
You know that today the dominion of the world is enjoyed by the one who possesses the greatest strength. The principle of hereditary succession is not extinct, [but] long ago destiny abolished this custom.
— Iltutmish[27]
Iltutmish offered to engage in a negotiation provided both men came to the meeting unaccompanied by any warriors.
Initial conflict with Qabacha
Iltutmish's victory over Yildiz did not result in any substantial increase in his territory.
Subsequently, Qabacha tried to conquer a greater part of Punjab: according to
Qabacha seems to have posed a serious threat to Iltutmish, as suggested by Muhammad Aufi in Lubab ul-Albab. Aufi, writing shortly before the Khwarazmian invasion, expresses hope that his patron Qabacha will soon conquer the whole of Hindustan. Aufi also mentions that Ahmad Jamaji, who was Iltutmish's governor of Bahraich, defected to Qabacha in 1220.[30]
Khwarazmian threat
The
The Mongol leader Genghis Khan briefly considered returning to Mongolia through a shorter route which involved crossing the Himalayan foothills. He sent envoys to Iltutmish, asking for the Delhi Sultan's permission to pass through India. No extant sources provide any information about the result of this embassy, but it appears that Genghis Khan abandoned his plan to pass through India. According to the Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni, Genghis Khan advanced eastwards into India, but failed to find a suitable route, and therefore, exited the country via Peshawar.[34] It is possible that Genghis Khan, through his envoys, asked Iltutmish to not aid Jalal ad-Din: Iltutmish seems to have obliged.[35]
Meanwhile, Jalal ad-Din established himself in the
Meanwhile, Qabacha - who had earlier accepted Jalal ad-Din's suzerainty - rebelled against him, and this conflict kept Jalal ad-Din busy.[37] Jalal-ad-Din carried out some more campaigns in India, including a raid in Gujarat, but none against Iltutmish. He left the Indian frontier in 1223–1224; according to his biographer Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi, he did so because he received the news that Iltutmish, Qabacha, and several Hindu chiefs ("rais and thakurs") had formed an alliance against him.[33] The Mongols also maintained a presence in the region: for example, Genghis Khan's general besieged Qabacha in Multan in 1224, before retreating because of hot weather.[34]
Until Genghis Khan's death in 1227, Iltutmish chose not to get involved in the politics of the Indus valley region to avoid a potential conflict with the Mongols.[37]
Territorial expansion
Eastern India and Rajasthan
Iltutmish's predecessor Aibak had appointed
Iltutmish's forces captured Bihar in the 1210s, and invaded Bengal in 1225. Ghiyasuddin led an army to check Iltutmish's advance, but then decided to avoid a conflict by paying him tribute and accepting his suzerainty.[38][39] Iltutmish accepted the offer, and returned to Delhi after appointing Malik Jani as the governor of Bihar.[40]
In 1226, Iltutmish captured the Ranthambore Fort, which was reputed to be impregnable. The next year, he captured the fort of Mandore, also in present-day Rajasthan.[40]
Meanwhile, in eastern India, Ghiyasuddin re-asserted his independence and occupied Bihar.
Annexation of Qabacha's empire
During the first half of the 1220s, Iltutmish had avoided Indus River Valley, which was contended by the Mongols, the Khwarazm kings, and Qabacha. After the decline of the Mongol and the Khwarazmian threat, Qabacha gained control over this region. Shortly after, during 1228–1229, Iltutmish invaded Qabacha's territory.[27] By this time, the conflicts with the Khwarazmians and the Mongols had weakened Qabacha's power.[34]
The writings of Hasan Nizami and Muhammad Aufi suggest that Qabacha had earlier signed some treaties with Iltutmish, probably to secure his support against the Khwarazm prince Jalal ad-Din. These treaties probably involved Qabacha's recognition of Iltutmish's sovereignty, or promises to surrender some territories to the Delhi Sultan. Qabacha's failure to abide by these treaties may have prompted Iltutmish to wage a war against him.[43]
Iltutmish's forces captured Tabarhinda, Kuhram, Sarsati (or Sursuti), and Lahore from Qabacha.[43][44] Iltutmish appointed Nasir al-Din Aytemur al-Baha'i as his provincial governor (muqta) of Lahore.[43] He then sent Nasir al-Din to capture Multan, while he himself invaded Uch.[44] Nasir al-Din captured Lahore,[43] and Iltutmish captured Uch after a three-month long siege, on 4 May 1228.[44]
Qabacha fled to
Later years
Caliph's recognition
In 1220-, the
Although the Caliphate's status as a pan-Islamic institution had been declining, the Caliph's recognition was seen as a religious and political legitimization of Iltutmish's status as an independent ruler rather than a Ghurid subordinate.
After the Caliph's recognition, Iltutmish began inscribing the Caliph's name on his coins, including the new silver tanka introduced by him.[48]
Other campaigns
In March–April 1229, Iltutmish's son
Meanwhile, Mangal Deva, the Parihara chief of Gwalior in central India, had declared independence. In 1231, Iltutmish besieged the city, and captured it after 11 months of conflict, on 12 December 1232. After Mangal Deva fled, and Iltutmish left the fort under the charge of his officers Majdul Mulk Ziyauddin.[49]
In 1233–1234, Iltutmish placed
Subsequently, Iltutmish raided the
By 1229–1230, the north-western boundary of Iltutmish's kingdom appears to have extended up to the Jhelum River, as Nasawi states that he controlled the area "up to the neighbourhood of the gates of Kashmir". During this period, Iltutmish invaded the territories controlled by the Khwarazmian subordinate Ozbeg-bei, in present-day Pakistan. Ozbeg-bei fled to the Khwarazmian ruler Jalal-ad-Din in Iraq, while Other local commanders - including Hasan Qarluq - surrendered to Iltutmish. Qarluq later changed his allegiance to the Mongols. During his last days, in 1235–1236, Iltutmish is known to have aborted a campaign in the Binban area: this campaign was probably directed against Qarluq.[38]
Hammira-mada-mardana, a
Death and succession
In 1236, Iltutmish fell ill during a march towards Qarluq's stronghold of
The death of Iltutmish was followed by years of political instability at Delhi. During this period, four descendants of Iltutmish were put on the throne and murdered.
During Ruknuddin's reign, his mother Shah Turkan took control of the state affairs, and started mistreating her rivals. Their execution of Qutubuddin, a popular son of Iltutmish, led to rebellions by several nobles, including Malik Ghiyasuddin Muhammad Shah - another son of Iltutmish.
Order was re-established only after
Religion
Iltutmish was a devout Muslim, and spent considerable time praying at night.[67]
He was punctual in offering his prayers.
Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad says:
Sultan Shams-ud-Din was very puntilious in his prayers (
namaz) and on Fridays he went to the mosque and stayed there to offer obligatory and superogatory prayers.[68]
He also made special arrangement for prayers on military campaigns.
His court poet Amir Ruhani describes him as a "holy warrior and Ghazi".[69] He revered several Sufi saints, including Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Hamiduddin Nagauri, Jalaluddin Tabrizi, Bahauddin Zakariya, and Najibuddin Nakhshabi.[67]
Policy towards Hindus
When a group of ulema came to Iltutmish and requested him to apply the law of "death or Islam" on Hindus, Iltutmish asked Nizam-ul'-Mulk Junaidi to give a suitable reply to the ulama.
The Wazir replied to them:
"But at the moment India has newly been conquered and the Muslims are so few that they are like salt (in a large dish). If the above orders are to be applied to the Hindus, it is possible they might combine and a general confusion might ensue and the Muslims would be too few in number to suppress this general confusion. However, after a few years when in the capital and in the regions and the small towns the Muslims are well established and the troops are larger, it will be possible to give Hindus, the choice of "death or Islam"".[70]
Iltutmish held religious discourses by orthodox
Legacy
"Iltutmish laid down the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate as a truly independent kingdom, freeing it from a subordinate position to Ghazni.[53][72] The Caliph's investiture, although a mere formality, reaffirmed his status as an independent sovereign among the Muslims.[53] By the time of his death, the Delhi Sultanate had emerged as the largest and the most powerful kingdom in northern India.[72]
Iltutmish was most probably the first ruler to organize a centrally recruited, centrally paid and centrally managed army in the Delhi Sultanate. His courtier Fakhr-i Mudabbir composed Adab al-harb wa-l-shaja'a, a book on the art of warfare.[73]
Iqtas
Iltutmish implemented the iqta system of administrative grants in the Delhi Sultanate. This system, borrowed from the earlier Islamic dynasties of the Middle East, involved dedicating the revenues from a certain region to a subordinate in exchange for military service and political loyalty. Iltutmish used this iqtas to consolidate his empire by dismantling the existing feudal order of the Indian society.[74]
Iltutmish assigned several regions to his Turkic subordinates in the form of iqtas. The larger iqtas - which were effectively provinces of the empire - were assigned to high-ranking men, who were expected to administer the regions, maintain local law and order, and supply military contingents in times of need. The holders of the smaller iqtas were only expected to collect revenues from their regions, in exchange for providing military service to the emperor. To ensure that this iqta system remained bureaucratic - rather than feudal - in nature, Iltutmish transferred the iqta holders from one region to another, refused to grant them legal immunity, and discouraged localism in administration.[73]
Both free amirs as well as bandagan-i-shamsi (as opposed to bandagan-i-khass during Mu'izz ad-Din's times) were used by Iltutmish over an extended, long process involving rotation of the iqtas assigned to each noble every once in a while to ensure that there was no question of claims on a specific region by a specific noble. Besides these, princes were used as well in almost the same capacity, but in more important roles.[75][page needed]
Coinage
Iltutmish introduced two coins that became the basis for the subsequent coinage of the Delhi Sultanate: the silver tanka and the copper jital.[76]
His predecessors, including the Ghurid rulers, had maintained the local coinage system based on the
-
Obv: Crude figure of Rider bearing lance on caparisoned horse facing right. Devanagari legends: Sri / hamirah. Star above horse.
Rev: Arabic legends: Shams al-dunya wa'l din Iltutmish al-sultan. -
Obv:Rider bearing lance on caparisoned horse facing right. Devanagari legends: Sri / hamirah.
Rev:Arabic legends: Shams al-dunya wa'l din Abu'l Muzaffar Iltutmish al-Sultan.
In response to the lack of silver, Iltutmish introduced a new bimetallic coinage system to Northern India consisting of an 11 grams silver tanka and the billon jital, with 0.25 grams of silver. The Dehliwala was devalued to be on par with the jital. This meant that a Dehliwala with 0.59 grams of silver was now equivalent to a coin with 0.25 grams of silver. Each Dehliwala paid as tax, therefore produced an excess 0.34 grams of silver which could be used to produce tankas. The new system served as the basis for coinage for much of the Sultanate period and even beyond, though periodic shortages of silver caused further debasement. The tanka is a forerunner to the Rupee.[78][79]
Islamic culture
During Iltutmish's reign, the city of Delhi emerged as the centre of Islamic power and culture in India.
Fawa'id-ul-Fu'ad mentions an anecdote about Iltutmish's patronage to scholars: Nasiri, a poet in need of a royal award, composed a qasida in praise of Iltutmish. However, while he was in the middle of reciting the poem, Iltutmish left the recital to attend an urgent administrative matter. A dismayed Nasiri thought Iltutmish would forget him, and lost all hope of getting the royal award. But as soon as Iltutmish was free, he came to Nasiri, recited the first line of the qasida from his memory, and asked Nasiri to complete his recital.[81]
Architecture
Iltutmish invested in numerous waterworks, mosques, and civil amenities in Delhi.[71] He completed the construction of the Qutb Minar, which had been started by Qutb al-din Aibak. He also commissioned the Hauz-i-Shamsi reservoir to the south of Qutb Minar, and the madrasa (school) around it.[82]
He built several
In 1231, he built the
-
Qutb Minar was completed by Iltutmish
-
Hauz-i-Shamsi pavilion
-
Gandhak ki Baoli
-
Sultan Ghari
Family
Consorts
- Turkan Khatun (died after 1236; also known as Turkman Khatun or Qutub Begum), was the chief consort of Iltutmish and daughter of Qutb ud-Din Aibak. She was the mother of Nasiruddin Mahmud, Razia Sultana, Ghiyasuddin Muhammad Shah, Shihabuddin Muhammad, Shazia Begum and Qutbuddin Muhammad. She was probably the youngest daughter of Qutbuddin Aibak while her two other sisters were married to Nasir ad-Din Qabacha.[86]
- Slave Dynasty. Turkan had been a Turkic (enslaved) hand-maidand had risen to take control of the Sultan's harem. She took this opportunity to wreak vengeance against all those who had slighted her in the past.
- Mother of Muizuddin Bahram (died after 1236), not much known about her but she was the mother of Sultan Muizuddin Bahram and a daughter, who married to Malik Ikhtiyar uddin Aitegin. She probably the daughter or sister of one of Iltutmish's forty chiefs.
- Malika-i-Jahan (died after 1246; full title: Malika-i-Jahan Jalal ud Dunya wal Din), mother of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. Her real name was unknown, formerly the concubine of Iltutmish but she was given the title Malika-i-Jahan during his son's reign. Her existence as Iltutmish's consort often debate, some stated she was the wife of Iltutmish's deceased son, Malik-us-Sa'id Nasiruddin Mahmud. Both she and her son was sent to live in a palace in Loni Village. After the death of Iltutmish, she married Malik Saifuddin Qutlugh Khan.[87]
- Mother of Jalaluddin Masud Shah, unknown identity.
- Many other concubines.
Sons
- Malik-us-Sa'id Nasiruddin Mahmud (died 1229) –with Turkan Khatun;[88] an eldest son of Iltutmish, who he grommed as his successor but unexpected died in 1229. He was the governor of Oudh later served as governor of Bengal until his death in 1229. He sent by Iltutmish to lead an invasion against the rebel Iwaz Khalji.[89] After defeating Iwaz Khalji, he received the title Malik-ush-Sharq (مٰلك الشّرق Māliku 'sh-Sharq, Arabic: "King of the East") from his father.
- Sultan Ruknuddin Firuz (executed 19 November 1236) –with Shah Turkan;[90] he was appointed as successor of Iltutmish. However he spent his time in pursuing pleasure and left his mother in control the administration. The misadministration led to rebellions against Ruknuddin and his mother.[91]
- forty chiefs when his sister Razia Sultana was imprisoned in Bathindaand also appointed Amir-i-Hajib Malik Ikhtiyar ud-Din Aitegin as his regent. During the rebel against him, Ikhtiyaruddin Aitegin was killed before him.
- Malik Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad Shah (died after 1236) –probably with Turkan Khatun; he was appointed as governor of Oudh. He was rebel against Ruknuddin Firuz after Shah Turkan blinded and executed the popular son of Iltutmish, Qutbuddin.[92]
- Jalaluddin Masud Shah (died after 1242) –with unnamed consorts; Upon the death of Muiz ud din Bahram, he along with his brother Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah and nephew Ala-ud-Din Masud Shah (son if Ruknuddin Firuz) was brought to Firuzi castle, the royal residence, from the confinement of the white castle by the amirs and Ala ud din Masud was chosen as the Sultan. Both the brothers remained in confinement until September 1243.[93]
- Shihabuddin Muhammad, not much known about him. His mother probably Turkan Khatun and he probably died in childhood or executed during the reign of Ruknuddin Firuz.[94]
- Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (c. 1229/1230 – 19 November 1266) –with Malika-i-Jahan Jalal ud Dunya wal Din;[95] He was named after his deceased eldest brother Nasiruddin Mahmud, he was sent to live in a palace in Loni Village.[96] He ascended the throne in 1246 and appointed his father-in-law Ghiyas ud din Balban as a regent.[97]
- Qutbuddin Muhammad (blinded and executed in 1236) –with Turkan Khatun; he was the youngest son of Iltutmish and popular among the statesmen. In 1236 during the reign of Ruknuddin Firuz, Shah Turkan started mistreating her rival and one of them was Qutbuddin, who had been blinded and executed. This incident led rebellion against Ruknuddin Firuz.[98]
Daughters
- Razia Sultana (c. 1205 – 15 October 1240) –with Turkan Khatun;[99][100] she was the first and only female ruler of Delhi Sultanate, when her father leaving for his Gwalior campaign in 1231, Iltutmish left her as in-charge of Delhi's administration. She performed her duties so well that after his father returns, Iltutmish decided to name her as his successor.[101] She ascended the throne in 1236 but overthrown in 1240. In 1240 during the imprisonment in Bathinda, she married Malik Ikhtiyar ud-Din Altunia. Both of them were killed in October 1240.[102]
- Shazia Begum (probably died 1240) –with Turkan Khatun. not much known about her but Some sources said she was killed along with Razia and her tomb located beside Razia's grave in Mohalla Bulbuli Khanna near Turkman Gate in Old Delhi.[103] She is said to be married to a statesman known as Izz-ud-din Balban-i-Khaslu Khan.[104]
- Unnamed daughter (died after 1240) –with unnamed consorts; she was the sister of Muiz ud din Bahram, which he married the regent Amir-i-Hajib Malik-i-Kabir Ikhtiyaruddin Aitegin.[105]
References
- ISBN 978-0-253-11671-0. Archivedfrom the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
Juzjani provided rare details about how Iltutmish was enslaved as a youth in the Central Asian steppes...
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 676.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 676.
- ^ a b K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 256.
- ^ a b Jaswant Lal Mehta 1979, p. 105.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 633.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 661.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 633.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 650, 661.
- ^ "Grave of Delhi's only woman Sultan lies forgotten". www.dnaindia.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 209–210:"There has been considerable controversy during the last several decades regarding the pronunciation and the orthography of the Sultan's name. Contemporary Persian textsTajul Ald'asir, Tarikh-iFakhruddin Mubarak Shah, Adabul Harb and Tabagat-i Nasiri-as well as the inscriptions on buildings and coins have been differently read and differently interpreted by different writers. Elphinstone spelt the name as 'Altamish;! CJliot as 'Altamsh';2 and Raverty as Tyaltimish. In 1907 Barthold suggested that the word was really IItutmish'maintainer of the kingdom' and advanced convincing arguments in support of his view"
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 209.
- ^ André Wink 1991, pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b c André Wink 1991, p. 154.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 210.
- ^ a b c d K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 211.
- ^ a b c K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 212.
- ^ a b c K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 213.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 206.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 207–208.
- ^ a b Peter Jackson 2003, p. 29.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 208.
- ^ André Wink 1991, p. 152.
- ^ a b c d e f Peter Jackson 2003, p. 30.
- ^ F. B. Flood 2009, p. 228.
- ^ a b c d André Wink 1991, p. 153.
- ^ a b c d e f K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 214.
- ^ a b c K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 215.
- ^ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 32–33.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 215–216.
- ^ a b c d Peter Jackson 2003, p. 33.
- ^ a b c Peter Jackson 2003, p. 34.
- ^ a b K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 216.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 216–217.
- ^ a b c K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 217.
- ^ a b c Peter Jackson 2003, p. 36.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 217–218.
- ^ a b K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 218.
- ^ a b c d Peter Jackson 2003, p. 37.
- ^ a b André Wink 1991, p. 156.
- ^ a b c d e f g Peter Jackson 2003, p. 35.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 219.
- ^ Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Sean Oliver-Dee 2009, p. 31.
- ^ Blain H. Auer 2012, pp. 107–108.
- ^ a b F. B. Flood 2009, p. 240.
- ^ a b c K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 220.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 221.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 221–222.
- ^ a b K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 222.
- ^ a b c Satish Chandra 2004, p. 45.
- ^ Mahajan, Vidya Dhar (1965). Muslim Rule in India. S. Chand.
- ^ A. K. Majumdar 1956, pp. 157–159.
- ^ S. M. Ikram 1966, p. 52.
- ^ André Wink 1991, p. 157.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 230.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 231.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 235.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 236.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 242.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 244–249.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 250–255.
- ^ a b Peter Jackson 2003, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Riazul Islam 2002, p. 323.
- ^ a b c d e K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 229.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 20.
- ^ Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi 2003, p. 40.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 24.
- ^ a b c Salma Ahmed Farooqui 2011, p. 60.
- ^ a b c Salma Ahmed Farooqui 2011, p. 59.
- ^ a b K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 227.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 226–227.
- ISBN 978-81-7824-306-1.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 227–228.
- ^ Ian Blanchard 2005, pp. 1263–1264.
- ^ Ian Blanchard 2005, pp. 1264–1265.
- ^ André Wink 1991, p. 155.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 223.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 228.
- ^ Satish Chandra 2004, p. 46.
- ^ Ronald Vivian Smith 2005, pp. 11–12.
- ^ R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 98.
- ^ Y.D.Sharma (2001). "Delhi and its Neighbourhood". Hauzi-i-Shamsi (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India). pp. 63–64 &73. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 676.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 676.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, Abu-'Umar-i-'Usman (1873). Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. London: Asiatic Society. pp. 660–673.
- ^ Ahmed, ABM Shamsuddin (2012). "Iltutmish". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 234–235.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 236.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 633.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 661.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 633
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873) p.676
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 256.
- OCLC 822894456.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 625, 633.
- ^ Guida M. Jackson 1999, p. 341.
- ^ Sudha Sharma 2016, p. 141 quote:"But as per Abu-Umar-i-Usman Minhaj-ud-din Siraj (Tabaqat-iNasiri), Turkan Khatun was the name of Razia's mother and not of this lady [Shah Turkan]."
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, pp. 230–231.
- ^ K. A. Nizami 1992, p. 243.
- ^ "Grave of Delhi's only woman Sultan lies forgotten". www.dnaindia.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 650, 661.
- ^ Minhaj-i-Siraj, "Tabaqat-i-Nasiri" translated by Major HG Raverty (1873), p. 650, 661.
Bibliography
- Ian Blanchard (2005). Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Ages. Vol. 3. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 9783515087049.
- A. K. Majumdar (1956). Chaulukyas of Gujarat. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
- ISBN 90-04-10236-1.
- Blain H. Auer (2012). Symbols of Authority in Medieval Islam: History, Religion and Muslim Legitimacy in the Delhi Sultanate. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-567-0.
- F. B. Flood (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12594-7. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
- Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi (2003). Medieval India: essays in intellectual thought and culture. Manohar. ISBN 978-81-7304-499-1. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
- Jaswant Lal Mehta (1979). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Vol. 2. Sterling Publishers Pvt. ISBN 9788120706170. Archivedfrom the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
- R. Balasubramaniam (2005). The World Heritage Complex of the Qutub. Aryan Books International. ISBN 978-81-7305-293-4. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
- Riazul Islam (2002). Sufism in South Asia: Impact on Fourteenth Century Muslim Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195790054. Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
- ISBN 978-81-8028-020-7. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
- S. M. Ikram (1966). Muslim Rule in India & Pakistan, 711-1858 A.C. Star Book Depot.
- Salma Ahmed Farooqui (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-3202-1. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 24 October 2018.
- ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5. Archivedfrom the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
- Sean Oliver-Dee (2009). The Caliphate Question: The British Government and Islamic Governance. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-3603-4. Archivedfrom the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 11 September 2019.