Immunology
Immunologist |
Immunology |
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Immunology is a branch of biology and medicine[1] that covers the study of immune systems[2] in all organisms.
Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the
The term was coined by Russian biologist
Prior to the designation of
Classical immunology
Classical immunology ties in with the fields of
The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive
The immune system has the capability of self and non-self-recognition.[13] An antigen is a substance that ignites the immune response. The cells involved in recognizing the antigen are Lymphocytes. Once they recognize, they secrete antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that neutralize the disease-causing microorganisms. Antibodies do not directly kill pathogens, but instead, identify antigens as targets for destruction by other immune cells such as phagocytes or NK cells.
The (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens.[14] Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies (antibody generators). Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities and the cellular response to both.
It is now getting clear that the immune responses contribute to the development of many common disorders not traditionally viewed as immunologic,[15] including metabolic, cardiovascular, cancer, and neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's disease. Besides, there are direct implications of the immune system in the infectious diseases (tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, pneumonia, dysentery, and helminth infestations) as well. Hence, research in the field of immunology is of prime importance for the advancements in the fields of modern medicine, biomedical research, and biotechnology.
Immunological research continues to become more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs and systems not previously associated with the immune system (Yemeserach 2010).
Diagnostic immunology
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made the antibody an excellent tool for the detection of substances by a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired antigen can be conjugated with an
Immunotherapy
The use of immune system components or antigens to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used to treat allergies, autoimmune disorders such as Crohn's disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis and rheumatoid arthritis, and certain cancers. Immunotherapy is also often used for patients who are immunosuppressed (such as those with HIV) and people with other immune deficiencies. This includes regulating factors such as IL-2, IL-10, GM-CSF B, IFN-α.
Clinical immunology
Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.
The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories:
- immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include chronic granulomatous disease and primary immune diseases);
- Hashimoto's disease and myasthenia gravis).
Other immune system disorders include various hypersensitivities (such as in asthma and other allergies) that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds.
The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is
Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune system's attempts to destroy
Clinical immunology and allergy is usually a subspecialty of internal medicine or pediatrics. Fellows in Clinical Immunology are typically exposed to many of the different aspects of the specialty and treat allergic conditions, primary immunodeficiencies and systemic autoimmune and autoinflammatory conditions. As part of their training fellows may do additional rotations in rheumatology, pulmonology, otorhinolaryngology, dermatology and the immunologic lab.[18]
Clinical and pathology immunology
When health conditions worsen to emergency status, portions of immune system organs, including the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissues, can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive.
Theoretical immunology
Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude. Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity. According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular by
In the mid-1950s,
More recently, several theoretical frameworks have been suggested in immunology, including "autopoietic" views,[32] "cognitive immune" views,[33] the "danger model" (or "danger theory"),[28] and the "discontinuity" theory.[34][35] The danger model, suggested by Polly Matzinger and colleagues, has been very influential, arousing many comments and discussions.[36][37][38][39]
Developmental immunology
The body's capability to react to antigens depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented.
Maternal factors also play a role in the body's immune response. At birth, most of the
During adolescence, the human body undergoes various physical, physiological and immunological changes triggered and mediated by
The female sex hormone 17-β-estradiol has been shown to regulate the level of immunological response,
Physical changes during puberty such as thymic involution also affect immunological response.[51]
Ecoimmunology and behavioural immunity
Ecoimmunology, or ecological immunology, explores the relationship between the immune system of an organism and its social, biotic and abiotic environment.
More recent ecoimmunological research has focused on host pathogen defences traditionally considered "non-immunological", such as pathogen avoidance, self-medication, symbiont-mediated defenses, and fecundity trade-offs.[52] Behavioural immunity, a phrase coined by Mark Schaller, specifically refers to psychological pathogen avoidance drivers, such as disgust aroused by stimuli encountered around pathogen-infected individuals, such as the smell of vomit.[53] More broadly, "behavioural" ecological immunity has been demonstrated in multiple species. For example, the Monarch butterfly often lays its eggs on certain toxic milkweed species when infected with parasites. These toxins reduce parasite growth in the offspring of the infected Monarch. However, when uninfected Monarch butterflies are forced to feed only on these toxic plants, they suffer a fitness cost as reduced lifespan relative to other uninfected Monarch butterflies.[54] This indicates that laying eggs on toxic plants is a costly behaviour in Monarchs which has probably evolved to reduce the severity of parasite infection.[52]
Symbiont-mediated defenses are also heritable across host generations, despite a non-genetic direct basis for the transmission. Aphids, for example, rely on several different symbionts for defense from key parasites, and can vertically transmit their symbionts from parent to offspring.[55] Therefore, a symbiont that successfully confers protection from a parasite is more likely to be passed to the host offspring, allowing coevolution with parasites attacking the host in a way similar to traditional immunity.
The preserved immune tissues of extinct species, such as the thylacine (Thylacine cynocephalus), can also provide insights into their biology.[56]
Cancer immunology
The study of the interaction of the immune system with cancer cells can lead to diagnostic tests and therapies with which to find and fight cancer. The immunology concerned with physiological reaction characteristic of the immune state.
Reproductive immunology
This area of the immunology is devoted to the study of immunological aspects of the reproductive process including fetus acceptance. The term has also been used by fertility clinics to address fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages, premature deliveries and dangerous complications such as pre-eclampsia.
See also
- List of immunologists
- Immunomics
- International Reviews of Immunology
- Outline of immunology
- History of immunology
- Osteoimmunology
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External links
- Media related to Immunology at Wikimedia Commons
- American Association of Immunologists
- British Society for Immunology
- Federation of Clinical Immunology Societies