History of Morocco
History of Morocco |
---|
The history of human habitation in Morocco spans since the Lower Paleolithic, with the earliest known being Jebel Irhoud. Much later Morocco was part of Iberomaurusian culture, including Taforalt. It dates from the establishment of Mauretania and other ancient Berber kingdoms, to the establishment of the Moroccan state by the Idrisid dynasty[1] followed by other Islamic dynasties, through to the colonial and independence periods.
Archaeological evidence has shown that the area was inhabited by hominids at least 400,000 years ago.[2] The recorded history of Morocco begins with the Phoenician colonization of the Moroccan coast between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE,[3] although the area was inhabited by indigenous Berbers for some two thousand years before that. In the 5th century BCE, the city-state of Carthage extended its hegemony over the coastal areas.[4] They remained there until the late 3rd century BCE,[5] while the hinterland was ruled by indigenous monarchs.[4] Indigenous Berber monarchs ruled the territory from the 3rd century BCE until 40 CE, when it was annexed to the Roman Empire. In the mid-5th century CE, it was overrun by Vandals, before being recovered by the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century.
The region was
Prehistoric Morocco
Archaeological excavations have demonstrated the presence of people in Morocco that were ancestral to
In Mesolithic times, between 20,000 and 5000 years ago, the geography of Morocco resembled a savanna more than the present arid landscape.[12] While little is known of settlements in Morocco during that period,[needs update] excavations elsewhere in the Maghreb region have suggested an abundance of game and forests that would have been hospitable to Mesolithic hunters and gatherers, such as those of the Capsian culture.[13]
During the
Early history
Carthage (c. 800 – c. 300 BCE)
The arrival of
By the 5th century BCE, the state of Carthage had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa. Carthage developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes of the interior, and paid them an annual tribute to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.[19]
Mauretania (c. 300 BCE – c. 430 CE)
Mauretania was an independent tribal
Rome controlled the vast, ill-defined territory through alliances with the tribes rather than through military occupation, expanding its authority only to those areas that were economically useful or that could be defended without additional manpower. Hence, Roman administration never extended outside the restricted area of the northern coastal plain and valleys. This strategic region formed part of the Roman Empire, governed as Mauretania Tingitana, with the city of Volubilis as its capital.[24]
During the time of the Roman emperor Augustus, Mauretania was a vassal state, and its rulers, such as Juba II, controlled all the areas south of Volubilis. But the effective control of Roman legionaries reached as far as the area of Sala Colonia (the castra "Exploratio Ad Mercurios" south of Sala is the southernmost discovered up to now). Some historians believe the Roman frontier reached present-day Casablanca, known then as Anfa, which had been settled by the Romans as a port.[25]
During the reign of Juba II, Augustus founded three colonies of Roman citizens in Mauretania close to the Atlantic coast: Iulia Constantia Zilil, Iulia Valentia Banasa, and Iulia Campestris Babba. Augustus would eventually found twelve colonies in the region.[26] During that period, the area controlled by Rome experienced significant economic development, aided by the construction of Roman roads. The area was initially not completely under the control of Rome, and only in the mid-2nd century was a limes built south of Sala extending to Volubilis.[27] Around 278 CE the Romans moved their regional capital to Tangier and Volubilis started to lose importance.[citation needed]
Christianity was introduced to the region in the 2nd century CE, and gained converts in the towns and among slaves as well as among Berber farmers. By the end of the 4th century, the Romanized areas had been Christianized,[
Early Islamic Morocco (c. 700 – c. 743)
Muslim conquest (c. 700)
The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, that started in the middle of the 7th century CE, was achieved in the early 8th century. It brought both the Arabic language and Islam to the area. Although part of the larger Islamic Empire, Morocco was initially organized as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan.[30]
The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration.[31]
Berber Revolt (740–743)
In 740 CE, spurred on by puritanical
Barghawata (744–1058)
The
Emirate of Sijilmasa (757–976)
The
Sijilmasa was a medieval Moroccan city and trade
Kingdom of Nekor (710–1019)
The
, but later deposed him in favor of one az-Zaydi from the Nafza tribe. They subsequently changed their mind and reappointed Ibn Mansur. His dynasty, the Banū Sālih, thereafter ruled the region until 1019.In 859, the kingdom became subject to a 62 ship-strong group of Vikings, who defeated a Moorish force in Nekor that had attempted to interfere with their plunderings in the area. After staying for eight days in Morocco, the Vikings went back to Spain and continued up the east coast.[36]
Idrisid dynasty (789–974)
The
Founders of the Idrisid state: Idris I and Idris II
By the second half of the 8th century the westernmost regions of the Maghreb, including present-day Morocco, had been effectively independent of the Umayyad Caliphate since the Khariji-led Berber revolts that started in 739–740.[38][39] The Abbasid Caliphate after 750 had no more success in re-establishing control over Morocco.[38]: 41 The overthrow of eastern authority meant that Morocco was controlled by various local Berber tribes and principalities which emerged around this time, such as the Barghwata Confederacy on the Atlantic coast and the Midrarid Emirate in Sijilmasa.[38][40]
The founder of the Idrisid dynasty was
The powerful
Even though he had spread his authority across much of northern Morocco, as far west as
The successors of Idris II
The dynasty's power would slowly decline following Idris II's death. Under his son and successor Muhammad (828–836) the kingdom was divided amongst seven of his brothers, whereby eight Idrisid statelets formed in Morocco and western Algeria.[44] Muhammad himself came to rule Fes, with only nominal power over his brothers. His brother Isa, who was given control of the coastal Tamesna regions near the Bou Regreg from his base at Chellah, quickly revolted against him. Muhammad entrusted his brother Umar, who had received the territories around the Rif, to punish Isa. Umar successfully drove Isa from power, who was forced to take refuge in Chellah, and then turned north to punish his other brother al-Qasim at Tangier because he had earlier refused to join him and Muhammad against Isa. Al-Qasim fled to Asilah and settled nearby, while Muhammad gave Umar governorship of Tangier as a reward. Upon Umar's death in September or October 835 his son Ali ibn Umar was granted all of his father's domains in turn. Muhammad himself died seven months later in the March or April 836. His son Ali ibn Muhammad inherited his position and ruled for 13 years (836–849) in a competent manner, ensuring the stability of the state. After his death in 849 he was succeeded by his brother Yahya ibn Muhammad (or Yahya I), who also enjoyed a peaceful reign.[45]
During this time
Decline of the Idrisids and rise of Zenata dominance
After the death of Yahya I in 863 he was succeeded by his less competent son, Yahya II, who divided up the Idrisid realm yet again among the extended families. Yahya II died in uncertain circumstances in 866 after fleeing his palace. After an episode of disorder in Fes his cousin Ali ibn Umar took over power.
Yahya III ruled over the entire Idrisid realm and continued to attack the Sufris. In 905 however he died in battle against another family member,
From Fes, the Miknasa began pursuing the Idrisid family across Morocco. The family took refuge at the fortress of
After this Idrisids settled among the
Despite having fallen from power, the Idrisids nonetheless spawned many sharifian families which continued to be present for centuries to come. Some Moroccans today still claim descent from them.[45] In the 11th century an Idrisid family descended from Umar (son of Idris II), the Hammudids were able to gain power in several cities of northern Morocco and southern Spain.[45][47] In Fes and in the town of Moulay Idriss (near Volubilis), the tombs of Idris II and Idris I, respectively, eventually developed into important religious complexes and pilgrimage sites (e.g. the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II).[48][49] Several prominent sharifian families in Fez traced their lineages to Idris I,[50]: 488 and some of these played a role in maintaining or rebuilding the Zawiya of Idris II in the city.[51]
Almoravid dynasty (c. 1060 – 1147)
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Section was likely copied directly from Almoravid dynasty, but has insufficient citations and doesn't properly summarize the period, as it covers the early years in detail and nothing about the rest of the period. (October 2022) |
The Almoravid dynasty (c.1060–1147) originated among the Lamtuna nomadic Berber tribe belonging to the Sanhaja. They succeeded in unifying Morocco after it had been divided among several Zenata principalities in the late 10th century, and annexed the Emirate of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata (Tamesna) into their realm.
Under Yusuf ibn Tashfin, the Almoravids were invited by the Muslim taifa princes of Al-Andalus to defend their territories from the Christian kingdoms. Their involvement was crucial in preventing the fall of Al-Andalus. After having succeeded in repelling Christian forces in 1086, Yusuf returned to Iberia in 1090 and annexed most of the major taifas.[53]
Almoravid power began to decline in the first half of the 12th century, as the dynasty was weakened after its defeat at the
The Berbers of the
The western Sanhaja had been converted to
Around 1040,
Abdallah ibn Yasin was a Gazzula Berber, and probably a convert rather than a born Muslim. His name can be read as "son of
Ibn Yasin, however, found a more favorable reception among the neighboring Lamtuna people.[58] Probably sensing the useful organizing power of Ibn Yasin's pious fervor, the Lamtuna chieftain Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni invited the man to preach to his people. The Lamtuna leaders, however, kept Ibn Yasin on a careful leash, forging a more productive partnership between them. Invoking stories of the early life of Muhammad, Ibn Yasin preached that conquest was a necessary addendum to Islamicization, that it was not enough to merely adhere to God's law, but necessary to also destroy opposition to it. In Ibn Yasin's ideology, anything and everything outside of Islamic law could be characterized as "opposition". He identified tribalism, in particular, as an obstacle. He believed it was not enough to urge his audiences to put aside their blood loyalties and ethnic differences, and embrace the equality of all Muslims under the Sacred Law, it was necessary to make them do so. For the Lamtuna leadership, this new ideology dovetailed with their long desire to refound the Sanhaja union and recover their lost dominions. In the early 1050s, the Lamtuna, under the joint leadership of Yahya ibn Umar and Abdallah ibn Yasin—soon calling themselves the al-Murabitin (Almoravids)—set out on a campaign to bring their neighbors over to their cause.
Almohads (c. 1121–1269)
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2021) |
The Almohad Caliphate (
Early in his life, Ibn Tumart went to Spain to pursue his studies, and thereafter to
Around 1124, Ibn Tumart erected the ribat of Tinmel, in the valley of the Nfis in the High Atlas, an impregnable fortified complex, which would serve both as the spiritual center and military headquarters of the Almohad movement. For the first eight years, the Almohad rebellion was limited to a guerilla war along the peaks and ravines of the High Atlas. In early 1130, the Almohads finally descended from the mountains for their first sizeable attack in the lowlands. It was a disaster. The Almohads swept aside an Almoravid column that had come out to meet them before Aghmat, and then chased their remnant all the way to Marrakesh. They laid siege to Marrakesh for forty days until, in April (or May) 1130, the Almoravids sallied from the city and crushed the Almohads in the bloody Battle of al-Buhayra (named after a large garden east of the city). The Almohads were thoroughly routed, with huge losses. Half their leadership was killed in action, and the survivors only just managed to scramble back to the mountains.[72]
Ibn Tumart died shortly after, in August 1130. That the Almohad movement did not immediately collapse after such a devastating defeat and the death of their charismatic Mahdi, is likely due to the skills of his successor, Abd al-Mu'min.[73]: 70 Ibn Tumart's death was kept a secret for three years, a period which Almohad chroniclers described as a ghayba or "occultation". This period likely gave Abd al-Mu'min time to secure his position as successor to the political leadership of the movement.[73]: 70 Although a Zenata Berber from Tagra (Algeria),[74] and thus an alien among the Masmuda of southern Morocco, Abd al-Mu'min nonetheless saw off his principal rivals and hammered wavering tribes back to the fold. Three years after Ibn Tumart's death he was officially proclaimed "Caliph".[75]
Conquests
Abd al-Mu'min then came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart. Between 1130 and his death in 1163, Abd al-Mu'min not only rooted out the Murabits (
The Almohad princes had a longer and more distinguished career than the Murabits. The successors of Abd al-Mumin,
From the time of
Holding years
In 1212, the Almohad Caliph
. The battle broke the Almohad advance, but the Christian powers remained too disorganized to profit from it immediately.Before his death in 1213, al-Nasir appointed his young ten-year-old son as the next
In early 1224, the youthful caliph died in an accident, without any heirs. The palace bureaucrats in
This
Reconquista
In 1225, Abd Allah al-Bayyasi's band of rebels, accompanied by a large Castilian army, descended from the hills, besieging cities such as
But al-Adil's fortunes were briefly buoyed. In payment for Castilian assistance, al-Bayyasi had given Ferdinand III three strategic frontier fortresses:
The Andalusian branch of the Almohads refused to accept this turn of events. Al-Adil's brother, then in Seville, proclaimed himself the new Almohad caliph
That same year, Portuguese and
The departure of al-Ma'mun in 1228 marked the end of the Almohad era in Spain. Ibn Hud and the other local Andalusian strongmen were unable to stem the rising flood of Christian attacks, launched almost yearly by
The Andalusians were helpless before this onslaught. Ibn Hudd had attempted to check the Leonese advance early on, but most of his Andalusian army was destroyed at the battle of Alange in 1230. Ibn Hud scrambled to move remaining arms and men to save threatened or besieged Andalusian citadels, but with so many attacks at once, it was a hopeless endeavor. After Ibn Hud's death in 1238, some of the Andalusian cities, in a last-ditch effort to save themselves, offered themselves once again to the Almohads, but to no avail. The Almohads would not return.
With the departure of the Almohads, the
Collapse in the Maghreb
In their African holdings, the Almohads encouraged the establishment of Christians even in
Marinids dynasty (c. 1244–1465)
Although the Marinids claimed Arab ancestry[77] through a North Arabian tribe,[78] they were of Berber origin. Following the arrival of the Arab Bedouins in North Africa in the middle of the eleventh century, the Marinids were obliged to leave their lands in the region of Biskra, in present-day Algeria.[79][80] They first frequented the area between Sijilmasa and Figuig, present-day Morocco,[81][82] at times reaching as far as the Zab , present-day Algeria.[83] They would move seasonally from the Figuig oasis to the Moulouya River basin.[84] Following the arrival of Arab tribes in the area in the 11th-12th centuries, the Marinids moved to the north-west of present-day Algeria,[81] before entering en-masse into Morocco by the beginning of the 13th century.[85]
The Marinids took their name from their ancestor, Marin ibn Wartajan al-Zenati.[86]
Rise
After arriving in present-day Morocco, they initially submitted to the
Between 1244 and 1248 the Marinids were able to take
Apogee
After the Nasrids of Granada ceded the town of Algeciras to the Marinids, Abu Yusuf went to Al-Andalus to support the ongoing struggle against the Kingdom of Castile. The Marinid dynasty then tried to extend its control to include the commercial traffic of the Strait of Gibraltar.
It was in this period that the Spanish Christians were first able to take the fighting to mainland present-day Morocco: in 1260 and 1267 they attempted an invasion, but both attempts were defeated. After gaining a foothold in Spain, the Marinids became active in the conflict between Muslims and Christians in Iberia. To gain absolute control of the trade in the Strait of Gibraltar, from their base at Algeciras they started the conquest of several Spanish towns: by the year 1294 they had occupied
.In 1276 they founded Fes Jdid, which they made their administrative and military centre. While Fes had been a prosperous city throughout the Almohad period, even becoming the largest city in the world during that time,[89] it was in the Marinid period that Fes reached its golden age, a period which marked the beginning of an official, historical narrative for the city.[90][91] It is from the Marinid period that Fes' reputation as an important intellectual centre largely dates, they established the first madrasas in the city and country.[92][93][94] The principal monuments in the medina, the residences and public buildings, date from the Marinid period.[95]
Despite internal infighting, Abu Said Uthman II (r. 1310–1331) initiated huge construction projects across the land. Several madrasas were built, the Al-Attarine Madrasa being the most famous. The building of these madrasas were necessary to create a dependent bureaucratic class, in order to undermine the marabouts and Sharifian elements.
The Marinids also strongly influenced the policy of the Emirate of Granada, from which they enlarged their army in 1275. In the 13th century, the Kingdom of Castile made several incursions into their territory. In 1260, Castilian forces raided Salé and, in 1267, initiated a full-scale invasion, but the Marinids repelled them.
At the height of their power, during the rule of
In 1348 Abu al-Hasan was deposed by his son Abu Inan Faris, who tried to reconquer Algeria and Tunisia. Despite several successes, he was strangled by his own vizir in 1358, after which the dynasty began to decline.
Decline
After the death of Abu Inan Faris in 1358, the real power lay with the viziers, while the Marinid sultans were paraded and forced to succeed each other in quick succession. The county was divided and political anarchy set in, with different viziers and foreign powers supporting different factions. In 1359 Hintata tribesmen from the High Atlas came down and occupied Marrakesh, capital of their Almohad ancestors, which they would govern independently until 1526. To the south of Marrakesh, Sufi mystics claimed autonomy, and in the 1370s Azemmour broke off under a coalition of merchants and Arab clan leaders of the Banu Sabih. To the east, the Zianid and Hafsid families reemerged and to the north, the Europeans were taking advantage of this instability by attacking the coast. Meanwhile, unruly wandering Arab Bedouin tribes increasingly spread anarchy, which accelerated the decline of the empire.
In the 15th century, it was hit by a financial crisis, after which the state had to stop financing the different marabouts and Sharifian families, which had previously been useful instruments in controlling different tribes. The political support of these marabouts and Sharifians halted, and it splintered into different entities. In 1399 Tetouan was taken and its population was massacred and in 1415 the
Marinid rulers after 1420 came under the control of the
In 1459, Abd al-Haqq II managed a massacre of the Wattasid family, breaking their power. His reign, however, brutally ended as he was murdered during the
Wattasid dynasty (c. 1472–1554)
Morocco was in decline when the Berber Wattasids assumed power. The Wattasid family had been the autonomous governors of the eastern
The Wattasid rulers failed in their promise to protect Morocco from foreign incursions and the Portuguese increased their presence on Morocco's coast. Mohammad al-Chaykh's son attempted to capture Asilah and Tangier in 1508, 1511 and 1515, but without success.
In the south, a new dynasty arose, the Saadian dynasty, which seized Marrakesh in 1524 and made it their capital. By 1537 the Saadis were in the ascendent when they defeated the Portuguese Empire at Agadir. Their military successes contrast with the Wattasid policy of conciliation towards the Catholic kings to the north.
As a result, the people of Morocco tended to regard the Saadians as heroes, making it easier for them to retake the Portuguese strongholds on the coast, including Tangiers, Ceuta and Maziɣen. The Saadians also attacked the Wattasids who were forced to yield to the new power. In 1554, as Wattasid towns surrendered, the Wattasid sultan, Ali Abu Hassun, briefly retook Fez. The Saadis quickly settled the matter by killing him and, as the last Wattasids fled Morocco by ship, they too were murdered by pirates.
The Wattasid did little to improve general conditions in Morocco following the Reconquista. It was necessary to wait for the Saadians for order to be reestablished and the expansionist ambitions of the kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula to be curbed.
Saadi dynasty (1549–1659)
Beginning in 1549, the region was ruled by successive Arab dynasties known as the Sharifian dynasties, who claimed descent from the prophet
In 1590,
In 1659,
Republic of Salé (1624–1668)
The republic traces its origins back to the beginning of the 17th century, with the arrival of approximately 3,000 wealthy
Pirates based on the western bank thrived and expanded their operations throughout the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean.[111] In 1624, the Dutchman Jan Janszoon (also known as Murad Reis) became the "Grand Admiral" and President of the Corsair Republic of Salé.[112]
After Janszoon left Salé in 1627, the Moriscos ceased to recognize the authority of the Sultan
In 1641 the
Alaouite dynasty (since 1666)
The
The kingdom was consolidated by
During the reigns of
European influence (c. 1830 – 1956)
The successful Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic coast in the 15th century did not affect the interior of Morocco. After the Napoleonic Wars, North Africa became increasingly ungovernable from Istanbul by the Ottoman Empire. As a result, it became the resort of pirates under local beys. The Maghreb also had far greater known wealth than the rest of Africa, and its location near the entrance to the Mediterranean gave it strategic importance. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830.[123] The Alaouite dynasty succeeded in maintaining the independence of Morocco in the 18th and 19th centuries, in the face of Ottoman and European encroachment.[124]
In 1844, after the French
In 1856, Sultan Abd al-Rahman's Makhzen signed the Anglo-Moroccan treaty, which was negotiated with the British diplomat John Hay Drummond Hay. The treaty granted several rights to British subjects in Morocco, and lowered Moroccan customs tariffs to 10%.[125] The treaty prolonged Moroccan independence while opening up the country to foreign trade, along with reducings the Makhzen's control over the Moroccan economy.[126]
The
In the mid 19th century,
In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. Sultan Hassan I called for the Madrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the protégé system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.[126]
More than half of the Makhzen's expenditures went abroad to pay war indemnities and buy weapons, military equipment, and manufactured goods.[126] From 1902 to 1909, Morocco's trade deficit increased 14 million francs annually, and the Moroccan rial depreciated 25% from 1896 to 1906.[126] In June 1904, after a failed attempt to impose a flat tax, France bailed out the already indebted Makhzen with 62.5 million francs, guaranteed by a portion of customs revenue.[126]
In the 1890s, the French administration and military in
Morocco nominally was ruled by its sultan, the young Abd al-Aziz, through his regent, Ba Ahmed. By 1900, Morocco was the scene of multiple local wars started by pretenders to the sultanate, by bankruptcy of the treasury, and by multiple tribal revolts. The French Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé saw the opportunity to stabilize the situation and expand the French overseas empire.
General Hubert Lyautey wanted a more aggressive military policy using his French army based in Algeria. France decided to use both diplomacy and military force. The French colonial authorities would establish control over the Sultan, ruling in his name and extending French influence. The British acceded to any French designs in Morocco in the Entente Cordiale of 1904. The Germans, however, who had no established presence in the region, strongly protested against the French plan. The Kaiser's dramatic intervention in Morocco in March 1905 in support of Moroccan independence became a turning point on the road to the First World War. The international Algeciras Conference of 1906 formalized France's "special position" and entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain. Germany was outmaneuvered diplomatically, and France took full control of Morocco.[133][134]
Morocco experienced a famine from 1903 to 1907, as well as insurrections led by El-Rogui (Bou Hmara) and Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni.[126]
French and Spanish protectorate (1912–1956)
Hafidiya
In 1907, the French took the murder of
The
-
The assassination of Émile Mauchamp March 1907, which precipitated the French invasion of Oujda and the conquest of Morocco.
-
Uprisings in Casablanca in July 1907 over the application terms of theBombardment of Casablanca.
-
Destruction of Casablanca caused by the 1907 French bombardment.
-
French artillery in Rabat in 1911. The dispatch of French forces to protect the sultan from a rebellion instigated the Agadir Crisis.
-
Destruction after the Intifada of Fes was quelled by French artillery fire.[143]
The treaties nominally assured Morocco of its legal status as a sovereign state, with the sultan as its figurehead.[126][144] In practice, the sultan had no real power and the country was ruled by the colonial administration. French civil servants allied themselves with the French settlers and with their supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As "pacification" proceeded, with the Zaian War and the War of the Rif, the French government focused on the exploitation of Morocco's mineral wealth, and particularly its phosphates; the creation of a modern transportation system with trains and buses; and the development of a modern agricultural sector geared to the French market. Tens of thousands of colons, or colonists, entered Morocco and acquired large tracts of the rich agricultural land.[145]
Morocco was home to half a million Europeans,[146] most of whom settled in Casablanca, where they formed almost half the population.[147] Since the kingdom's independence in 1956, and particularly after Hassan II's 1973 Moroccanization policies, the European element has largely departed.[46]
The Spanish coup of July 1936, which gave way to the Spanish Civil War, began with the Ejército de África in Spanish occupied Morocco.[148]
Nationalism and transnational anti-colonial resistance
Morroco has been a key transnational hub in the struggle against colonialism in the Middle-east region. The end of World War II that had weakened European colonial powers, the start of the US-URSS search for influence and the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 praising universal equality, represented an impetus for anti-colonial and nationalist movements in Morocco.[7]
Through its special international status and the French and US presence in Tangier, the city became a hub for anti-colonial activism. Fromout Tanger, a link was established between the inside resistance and activists from other countries. By creating a transnational network of supporters and public advocates (i.e. cultural elites, politicians, public figures, academics, medias), the nationalist movement aimed to bring the Moroccan cause to the forefront of the international community debate.[10]
In order to gain influence at a global level, Moroccan nationalist movements globalised their cause by seeking to unite with the pan-arabism movement and the Arab League, extending their activism networks to Cairo.[13] Another example is Paris, that became an important European city from where cultural elites advocated for the independence cause and brought the protectorate question to the forefront of the public debate.[15] The independence movement eventually managed to bring their national claim for independence to the UN for the first time in 1951, gaining a vote of 20 states in favour and 23 against.[15]
Opposition to European control
Led by Abd el-Krim, the independent Republic of the Rif existed from 1921 to 1926, based in the central part of the Rif (in the Spanish Protectorate), while also extending, for some months, to some parts of the tribal lands of the Ghomara, the Eastern Rif, Jbala, the Ouergha valley and the north of Taza.[149] After proclaiming independence on 18 September 1921, the polity developed state and governing institutions such as tax collection, law enforcement and the organisation of an army.[150] However, since 1925 the Spanish and French troops managed to quell the resistance and Abd el-Krim surrendered in May 1926.[150]
In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Comité d'Action Marocaine, or Moroccan Action Committee (CAM), proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils. CAM used petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French officials to further its cause, but these proved inadequate, and the tensions created in the CAM by the failure of the plan caused it to split. The CAM was reconstituted as a nationalist political party to gain mass support for more radical demands, but the French suppressed the party in 1937.[151]
Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on declarations such as the Atlantic Charter, a joint United States-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live.[152] The French regime also faced the opposition of the tribes — when the Berber were required to come under the jurisdiction of French courts in 1930, it increased support for the independence movement.[153]
Many Moroccan Goumiers, or indigenous soldiers in the French army, assisted the Allies in both World War I and World War II.[154] During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive. However, the nationalists belief that an Allied victory would pave the way for independence was disappointed.[citation needed] In January 1944, the Istiqlal (Independence) Party, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a manifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution.[155] The Sultan Muhammad V (1927–1961) had approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status was being considered.[citation needed] The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists became evident by the end of the war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. On 10 April 1947, in spite of a massacre instigated by French forces in Casablanca,[156] Sultan Muhammad V delivered a momentous speech in Tangier appealing for independence and territorial unity of Morocco, having travelled from French Morocco and through Spanish Morocco to reach the Tangier International Zone.[157][158] The résidence, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the colons, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence.[citation needed]
In December 1952, a riot broke out in Casablanca over the assassination of the Tunisian labour leader Farhat Hached; this event marked a watershed in relations between Moroccan political parties and French authorities. In the aftermath of the rioting, the residency outlawed the new Moroccan Communist Party and the Istiqlal Party.[159]
France's exile of the highly respected
Independent Morocco (since 1956)
In late 1955, in the middle of what came to be known as the Revolution of the King and the People,[169] Sultan Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. As the French Foreign Minister Antoine Pinay had expressed, there was a willingness to grant Morocco its independence to "turn Morocco into a modern, democratic and sovereign state".[168] In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the French-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on 22 March 1956.[168]
On 7 April 1956, France officially relinquished its protectorate in Morocco. The internationalized city of
In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under a constitutional monarchy in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, intent on preventing the Istiqlal from consolidating its control and establishing a one-party state. He assumed the monarchy on 11 August 1957, and from that date, the country officially became known as 'The Kingdom of Morocco'.[172][173]
Reign of Hassan II (1961–1999)
Mohammed V's son Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. His rule saw significant political unrest, and the ruthless government response earned the period the name "the years of lead". Hassan took personal control of the government as prime minister and named a new cabinet. Aided by an advisory council, he drew up a new constitution, which was approved overwhelmingly in a December 1962 referendum. Under its provisions, the king remained the central figure in the executive branch of the government, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, and an independent judiciary was guaranteed.[174]
In May 1963, legislative elections took place for the first time, and the royalist coalition secured a small plurality of seats. However, following a period of political upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a "state of exception," which remained in effect until 1970. Subsequently, a reform constitution was approved, restoring limited parliamentary government, and new elections were held. However, dissent remained, revolving around complaints of widespread corruption and malfeasance in government. In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by two attempted military coups.[citation needed]
After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of southwestern Algeria escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War. The conflict ended after Organisation of African Unity mediation, with no territorial changes.[175]
On 3 March 1973, Hassan II announced the policy of Moroccanization, in which state-held assets, agricultural lands, and businesses that were more than 50 percent foreign-owned—and especially French-owned—were transferred to political loyalists and high-ranking military officers.[176][177] The Moroccanization of the economy affected thousands of businesses and the proportion of industrial businesses in Morocco that were Moroccan-owned immediately increased from 18% to 55%.[176] 2/3 of the wealth of the Moroccanized economy was concentrated in 36 Moroccan families.[176]
The patriotism engendered by Morocco's participation in the Middle East conflict and Western Sahara events contributed to Hassan's popularity. The king had dispatched Moroccan troops to the Sinai front after the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War in October 1973.[178] Although they arrived too late to engage in hostilities, the action won Morocco goodwill among other Arab states.[citation needed] Soon after, the attention of the government turned to the acquisition of Western Sahara from Spain, an issue on which all major domestic parties agreed.[159]
Following years of discontent and inequality during the 1980s, on 14 December 1990, a general strike was called by two major trade unions in the country to demand an increase in the minimum wage and other measures. In Fez, this broke into protests and rioting led by university students and youths. The death of one of the students further inflamed protests, resulting in buildings being burned and looted, particularly symbols of wealth. While the official death toll was 5 people, the New York Times reported a toll of 33 people and quoted an anonymous source claiming the real death toll was likely higher. The government denied reports that the deaths were due to the intervention of security forces and armoured vehicles. Many of those arrested were later released and the government promised to investigate and raise wages, though some of these measures were dismissed by skeptical opposition parties.[179]: 377 [180][181][182]
Western Sahara conflict (1974–1991)
The Spanish
In August 1974, Spain formally acknowledged the 1966 United Nations (UN) resolution calling for a referendum on the future status of Western Sahara and requested that a
In early 1976, Spain ceded the administration of Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania. Morocco assumed control over the northern two-thirds of the territory and conceded the remaining portion in the south to Mauritania. An assembly of Saharan tribal leaders duly acknowledged Moroccan sovereignty. However, buoyed by the increasing defection of tribal chiefs to its cause, the Polisario drew up a constitution and announced the formation of the
The Moroccan government eventually sent a large portion of its combat forces into Western Sahara to confront the Polisario's forces, which were relatively small but well-equipped, highly mobile, and resourceful. The Polisario used Algerian bases for quick strikes against targets deep inside Morocco and Mauritania, as well as for operations in Western Sahara. In August 1979, after suffering military losses, Mauritania renounced its claim to Western Sahara and signed a peace treaty with the Polisario. In 1984, Morocco withdrew from the
In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan, and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991. Even though the UN Security Council created a peacekeeping force to implement a referendum on self-determination for Western Sahara, it has yet to be held, periodic negotiations have failed, and the status of the territory remains unresolved.[159]
The war against the Polisario guerrillas put severe strains on the economy, and Morocco found itself increasingly isolated diplomatically. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s culminated in the constitutional reform of 1996, which created a new bicameral legislature with expanded, although still limited, powers. Elections for the Chamber of Representatives were held in 1997, reportedly marred by irregularities.[159]
Reign of Mohammed VI (since 1999)
With the
In September 2002, new legislative elections were held, and the
In July 2002, a crisis broke out with Spain over a small, uninhabited island lying just less than 200 meters from the Moroccan coast, named Toura or Leila by Moroccans and Perejil by Spain. After mediation by the United States, both Morocco and Spain agreed to return to the status quo, under which the island remains deserted.[193][194]
In May 2003, Islamist
In February 2011, thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king.[202] Two months later, a bombing in Marrakesh occurred, killing 17 people – mainly foreigners.[203][204][205] It was the deadliest attack in Morocco in eight years. The Maghrebi arm of al-Qaeda denied involvement.[206][207] In July 2011 King Mohammed introduced a constitutional referendum proposed in order to placate "Arab Spring" protests.[208] In article 5 of the 2011 constitution, Amazigh was recognized as an official language.[209][210]
In October 2016, large-scale protests erupted after a fish seller in al-Hoceima was crushed to death in a rubbish truck as he tried to retrieve fish confiscated by police. The protests became known as the Hirak Rif Movement.[211][212] The 2016 election witnessed the victory of the Justice and Development Party (PJD), attaining a plurality of seats for a second consecutive time.[213] On 30 January 2017, Morocco rejoined the African Union as a member state, 33 years after leaving.[214][215][216] The 2018 consumer boycott targeted the market-dominating fuel, bottled water, and dairy brands.[217]
The COVID-19 pandemic in Morocco was first confirmed on 2 March 2020.[218][219] Eight days later, on 10 March 2020, Morocco recorded its first COVID-19-related death.[220] On 10 December 2020, President Donald Trump announced that the United States would officially recognize Morocco's claims over Western Sahara as part of the Israel–Morocco normalization agreement,[221][222] which saw Morocco reestablishing diplomatic relations with Israel.[223] A joint declaration between the three countries was signed on 22 December 2020.[224]
On 17 May 2021, an incident occurred between the borders of Spain and Morocco, part of a diplomatic crisis between both nations.[225][226][227] On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and "hostile actions against Algeria". Morocco called the decision "unjustified".[228]
The
On 3 May 2023, King Mohammed VI declared Amazigh New Year as an official national holiday to be celebrated yearly.[234][235]
On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitude earthquake hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. The epicentre of the quake was around 70 km southwest of the city of Marrakech.[236]
See also
- History of North Africa
- Imperial cities of Morocco
- List of Kings of Morocco
- Politics of Morocco
- History of cities in Morocco:
- Timeline of Morocco
Notes
- ^ S2CID 219626270.
- ^ a b Hublin, Jean Jacques (2010). "Northwestern African middle Pleistocene hominids and their bearing on the emergence of Homo Sapiens" (PDF). In Barham, Lawrence; Robson-Brown, Kate (eds.). Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the middle Pleistocene. Bristol, England: Western Academic and Specialist Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
- ^ a b Pennell 2003, p.5
- ^ a b Pennell 2003, pp.7–9
- ^ Pennell 2003, pp.9–11
- ^ "tradition (...) reaches back to the origins of the modern Moroccan state in the ninth century Idrisid dynasty which founded the venerable city of. Fes", G Joffe, Morocco: Monarchy, legitimacy and succession, in : Third World Quarterly, 1988
- ^ a b "The CBS News Almanac", Hammond Almanac Inc., 1976, p.783: "The Alaouite dynasty (Filali) has ruled Morocco since the 17th century"
- ISBN 9783642278815). p.229: "The Alaouite dynasty has ruled Morocco since the days of Mulai ar-Rashid (1664–1672)"
- ISBN 9781409499015). p.47: "Hassan in 1961, after the death of his father Mohammed V, continued the succession of Alaouite rule in Morocco since the seventeenth century"
- ^ a b Ghosh, Pallab (7 June 2017). "'First of our kind' found in Morocco". BBC News.
- ^ "World's Oldest Manufactured Beads Are Older Than Previously Thought". Sciencedaily.com. 7 May 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ^ 1984 D. Lubell. Paleoenvironments and Epi Paleolithic economies in the Maghreb (ca. 20,000 to 5000 B.P.). In, J.D. Clark & S.A. Brandt (eds.), From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 41–56.
- ^ a b D. Rubella, Environmentalism and Pi Paleolithic economies in the Maghreb (c. 20,000 to 5000 B.P.), in, J.D. Clark & S.A. Brandt (eds.), From Hunters to Farmers: Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 41–56
- ^ Nelson, Harold D. (1985). Morocco, a Country Study. Headquarters, Department of the Army.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-317-60532-4.
- ^ "North Africa - Ancient North Africa". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
- ^ "C. Michael Hogan, Mogador: Promontory Fort, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham". Megalithic.co.uk. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
- ISBN 1-85043-533-2
- )
- ^ a b C. Michael Hogan, Chellah, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham
- ^ Camps, Gabriel. "Baga". Retrieved 18 February 2024.
- ISBN 978-1-61230-978-1.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.
- ISBN 978-1-78672-647-6.
- ^ Data and map of Roman Banasa
- ISBN 978-90-04-25258-5.
- OCLC 1139892409.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ ISBN 2702828655)
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p.33
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, pp.33–34
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p.42
- ^ G. Deverdun, "Bargẖawāṭa", Encyclopédie berbère, vol. 9, Edisud, 1991, pp.1360–1361
- ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3.
- doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1996.tb01746.x, archived from the original(PDF) on 23 July 2012, retrieved 10 October 2016
- ^ "Northvegr – A History of the Vikings". Archived from the original on 17 August 2009. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
- ^ Hodgson, Marshall (1961), Venture of Islam, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 262
- ^ ISBN 0521337674.
- ISBN 9780791418277.
At this point, the rebels had control of all modern Morocco, most of which was not to see rule by the universal caliphate again.
- ^ a b c d e f g Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI. Fayard.
- ^ a b Idris I, D. Eustache, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. III, ed. B.Lewis, V. L. Menage, C. Pellat and J. Schact, (Brill, 1986), 1031.
- OCLC 495469525.
- ^ "Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum - object_ISL_ma_Mus01_F_2_en". islamicart.museumwnf.org. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
- ^ Idrisids, D. Eustache, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. III, 1035.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Eustache, D. (2012). "Idrīsids". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ ISBN 9780748621378.
- ^ Huici Miranda, A. (2012). "Ḥammūdids". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ Achouar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion.
- ISBN 2723301591.
- ^ Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.
- ^ Mezzine, Mohamed. "Mulay Idris Mausoleum". Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
- ^ Empires of Gold | Hour Three | Season 1 Episode 3 | Africa's Great Civilizations, retrieved 22 November 2019
- ^ Maxime RODINSON, « ALMORAVIDES », Encyclopædia Universalis [en ligne], consulté le 23 octobre 2014. URL : http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/almoravides/
- )
- ^ Mones (1988), p. 119; (1992), p. 228.
- ^ Lewicki (1988), pp. 160–61; (1992), pp. 308–09.
- ^ M. Brett and E. Fentress (1996), The Berbers, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 100. Revealingly, the 36th Sura begins the salutation "You are one of messengers" and the imperative duty to set people "on the straight path". Ibn Yasin's choice of name was probably not a coincidence.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-333-59957-0.
- ^ "Qantara". Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
- ^ "Qantara". Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
- ^ "Definition of ALMOHAD". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ^ "Almohad definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-4682-1.
- ^ a b "Almohads | Berber confederation". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0.
- ^ "Almohads - Islamic Studies". Oxford Bibliographies. 6 January 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ Hopkins, J.F.P. (24 April 2012). "Ibn Tūmart". Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Publishers. p. 958.
- ISBN 9781317870418.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7.
- ^ "The Islamic reformer Ibn Tumart: The man who changed the course of Islamic history - Qantara.de". Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World. 28 December 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
- S2CID 160438130.
- ISBN 978-90-04-09082-8. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
- ^ a b Bennison, Amira K. (2016). The Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press.
- ^ Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages - Page 4
- ISSN 1873-9830.
- ISBN 978-0-230-20012-8.
- ISBN 978-1-136-77161-3.
North African dynasty probably of Berber origin, although they claimed Arab ancestry
- ISBN 978-1-315-51107-8.
and even contrived a family tree to establish their "descent" from a North Arabian tribe
- ISBN 978-1-4008-7669-3.
- ISBN 978-2-296-06644-1.
- ^ ISBN 9004081127.
- ISBN 978-0-521-81691-5.
- ISBN 978-84-96556-34-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-5418-5.
- ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0.
- ISBN 9789231041532.
- ^ "Encyclopédie Larousse en ligne - Marinides ou Mérinides". Larousse.fr. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, 42.
- ISBN 9781907065071. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ "An Architectural Investigation of Marrind and Wattasid Fes Medina (674-961/1276-1554), In Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law" (PDF). Etheses.whiterose.ac.uk. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ "An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Watasid Fes" (PDF). Etheses.whiterose.ac.uk. p. 23. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ISBN 9004082654. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ISBN 9781558762244. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ISBN 9781405154017. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ "Al- Hakawati". Al-hakawati.net. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ISBN 9004090827. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ Julien, Charles-André, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830, Payot 1931, p.196
- ISBN 978-0-231-10714-3.
- ISBN 978-1-317-58897-9.
- ^ H. J. Kissling, Bertold Spuler, N. Barbour, J. S. Trimingham, F. R. C. Bagley, H. Braun, H. Hartel, The Last Great Muslim Empires, BRILL 1997, p.102 [1]
- ^ "Fall of Africa's Greatest Empire | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-521-47033-9.
- ISBN 978-1-84486-515-4.
- ISBN 978-0-521-20413-2.
- ^ E. George H. Joffé, North Africa: nation, state, and region, Routledge 1993, p. 19
- ISBN 2-85744-808-2)
- ^ Coindreau 2006, p.42
- ^ Coindreau 2006, p.43
- ISBN 978-2-87775-832-1.
- ^ (in French) Leïla Maziane, « Salé au XVIIe siècle, terre d’asile morisque sur le littoral Atlantique marocain », in Cahiers de la Méditerranée, no 79, 2009
- ^ (in French) « Rabat/Salé, la conquête pirate », in Le Monde, 1 September 2009
- ^ "Murad Reis", Pirate Utopias, p. 97, Retrieved 30 September 2009.
- ^ Maziane 2007, p.59
- ^ Coindreau 2006, p.48
- ^ Coindreau 2006, p.44-45 & 49-50
- ^ "Class/social stratification in Islam", History and underdevelopment in Morocco, p. 43, Retrieved 30 September 2009.
- ^ Roger Coindreau, 2006, p. 53
- ^ "Early Relations | Morocco - Embassy of the United States". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
- ^ "Dr. Farooq's Study Resource Page". Globalwebpost.com. 20 June 2000. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
- ^ Dolan, Kerry A. "Why Morocco Matters To The U.S." Forbes. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- )
- ^ Convention on diplomatic protection signed in Madrid 1880
- JSTOR 2142701.
- ISBN 978-1-317-64412-5.
- ^ "General Treaty Between Her Majesty and the Sultan of Morocco – EuroDocs". eudocs.lib.byu.edu. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ^ OCLC 855022840.
- OCLC 77066581.
- ISBN 978-0-295-98314-1.
- JSTOR 216479.
- ISBN 9782600044950) : « The Gourara-Touat-Tidikelt complex had been under Moroccan domination for many centuries prior to the arrival of the French in Algeria »
- ISBN 978-2-600-04495-0.
- The World's Work: A History of Our Time. XXII: 14988–14999. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
- ^ Dennis Brogan, The Development of modern France, 1870–1939 (1940) 392–401.
- JSTOR 286044.
- OCLC 855022840.
- OCLC 855022840.
- )
- ^ "Agadir Incident | European history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
- ^ "Treaty of Fès | Morocco [1912] | Britannica". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- S2CID 246007581.
- ISBN 978-90-04-06295-5.
- OCLC 855022840.
- ^ Repertory of Decisions of the International Court of Justice (1947-1992), P.453
- OCLC 855022840.
- ISBN 92-871-2611-9.
- ISBN 0-674-01017-5
- )
- ISSN 0482-5748.
- ^ S2CID 149496054.
- ^ Nelson, Harold D. (1985). Morocco, a Country Study. Headquarters, Department of the Army.
- ^ "Morocco (10/04)". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- JSTOR 40864899.
- S2CID 144080194.
- ^ "National celebrations". Moroccoinaustralia. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ "The 1947 French massacre in Casablanca". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ "زيارة محمد الخامس لطنجة.. أغضبت فرنسا وأشعلت المقاومة". Hespress (in Arabic). 31 July 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
- ^ Hekking, Morgan. "Remembering King Mohammed V, Morocco's Revolutionary Monarch". moroccoworldnews. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Text used in this cited section originally came from: Morocco profile from the Library of Congress Country Studies project.
- ^ Kasraoui, Safaa. "Independence Proclamation: The Ongoing Legacy of Moroccan Nationalism". moroccoworldnews. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Al Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية (27 November 2017), رجل استرخص الموت – محمد الزرقطوني, retrieved 23 May 2019
- ^ "Today in African history - 24 December". www.africatodayyesterday.org. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- ^ Arbaoui, Larbi. "Morocco's Most Emblematic Historical Events in Pictures". moroccoworldnews. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
- ^ Lall, Rashmee Roshan; jonoread (13 October 2021). "The 1950s book that explains the War on Terror". The New European. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ OCLC 1178769466.
- ^ Burns, Jennifer. "Revolution of the King and the People in Morocco, 1950–1959: Records of the U.S. State Department Classified Files". Retrieved 28 October 2016.
- S2CID 146977896.
- Project MUSE 16755.
- ^ "Muḥammad V | sultan of Morocco". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
- ^ Langer's Encyclopaedia of World History, page 1288.
- ^ "Constitutional history of Morocco". ConstitutionNet. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
- ^ P. Mweti Munya (1999). "The Organization of African Unity and Its Role in Regional Conflict Resolution and Dispute Settlement: A Critical Evaluation". Boston College Third World Law Journal. pp. 556–557.
- ^ OCLC 855022840.
- ^ "Marocanisation : Un système et des échecs". Aujourd'hui le Maroc (in French). 7 September 2004. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
- ^ CIA Intelligence Report (September 1975). "The 1973 Arab-Israeli War. Overview and Analysis of the Conflict" (PDF). CIA Library Reading room. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2019.
- ^ Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI. Fayard.
- ^ "33 Dead in 2-Day Riot in Morocco Fed by Frustration Over Economy". The New York Times. 17 December 1990.
- ^ "5 Die, 127 Hurt as Worst Riots in 7 Years Sweep Morocco City". Los Angeles Times. 16 December 1990. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
- ISBN 9780710305053.
- ^ "Ceuta, Melilla profile". BBC News. 14 December 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ Kazeem, Yomi (31 January 2017). "Morocco has rejoined the African Union after a 33-year absence". Quartz. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ "Mohamed VI, King of Morocco". Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Gale. 2007.
- ^ "Sahrawis campaign for human rights and independence in the first intifada, Western Sahara, 1999-2004 | Global Nonviolent Action Database". nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ "Western Sahara Since the Arab Spring". ACCORD. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ Schmickle, Sharon (17 December 2010). "The Kaplans in Morocco: Distinctive duo realizing a dream as they live politics and protocol 24/7". MinnPost. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ^ "MOROCCO: parliamentary elections Majliss-annouwab, 2002". archive.ipu.org. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
- ^ "Moroccans and Women: Two Rallies". The New York Times. 13 March 2000. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ^ "Moroccan feminist groups campaign to reform Moudawana (Personal Status Code/Islamic family law), 1992–2004 | Global Nonviolent Action Database". Nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ^ 2019-11-21T15:37:00+00:00. "Africa's first high speed line covers its costs". Railway Gazette International. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Europe | Solution to island dispute 'closer'". BBC News. 19 July 2002. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ^ "Battle of Parsley Island ends". The Daily Telegraph. 20 July 2002. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ "US rewards Morocco for terror aid". 4 June 2004. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ "Memorandum on Designation of the Kingdom of Morocco as a Major Non-NATO Ally | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ "Sahrawis campaign for independence in the second intifada, Western Sahara, 2005-2008 | Global Nonviolent Action Database". nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ "Western Sahara: Historical Timeline 1884–2014 - Cultures of Resistance Films". 11 December 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ Directorate-General for Trade (2022). "Southern Neighbourhood: EU trade relations with its Southern Neighbourhood. Facts, figures and latest developments". European Commission. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
- ^ Karam, Souhail (20 March 2011). "Thousands in Morocco march for rights". The Independent. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- ^ "Morocco: Marrakesh bomb strikes Djemaa el-Fna square". BBC News. 28 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ "Bomb blast hits popular cafe in Morocco, killing 15". NBC News. 28 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ "AQIM denies responsibility for fatal Marrakesh bombing". France 24. 7 May 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ "Moroccan court hands down harsher sentences for cafe bombers". France 24. 10 March 2012. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- ^ "Morocco approves King Mohammed's constitutional reforms". BBC News. 2 July 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- ^ Ottoway, Marina (20 June 2011), The New Moroccan Constitution: Real Change or More of the Same?, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
- ^ Morocco's Constitution of 2011 (PDF), translated by William S. Hein & Co, constituteproject.org
- ^ "Morocco profile - Timeline". BBC News. 24 April 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- ^ Masbah, Mohammed (7 November 2017). "A New Generation of Protests in Morocco? How Hirak al-Rif Endures". Arab Reform Initiative.
- ^ "Morocco PM's party wins election". BBC News. 8 October 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
- ^ "Morocco rejoins the African Union after 33 years". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ "Morocco rejoins African Union after 33-year absence – DW – 01/31/2017". dw.com. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ "Morocco consumer boycott has big business in its sights". Reuters. 30 May 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
- ^ "Morocco: Health ministry confirms first COVID-19 case March 2 /update 2". Morocco: Health ministry confirms first COVID-19 case March 2 /update 2 | Crisis24. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- ^ Kasraoui, Safaa. "Coronavirus Pandemic: A Timeline of COVID-19 in Morocco". moroccoworldnews. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- ^ "Morocco announces 1st coronavirus death". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- ^ "U.S. Relations With Morocco". United States Department of State. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ Kestler-D'Amours, Jillian (11 December 2020). "US recognised Morocco's claim to Western Sahara. Now what?". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ "Morocco, Israel: 6 decades of secret ties, cooperation". aa.com.tr.
- ^ "Joint-Declaration-US-Morrocco-Israel" (PDF). www.state.gov.
- ^ Ellyatt, Holly (19 May 2021). "Spain and Morocco in diplomatic crisis after 8,000 migrants enter Spanish territory". CNBC. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ "The Reasons Behind the Spanish-Moroccan Crisis". The Washington Institute. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ Ahmed, Hamid Ould (25 August 2021). "Algeria cuts diplomatic relations with Morocco". Reuters.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
- ^ "Moderate parties win big in Moroccan elections – DW – 09/09/2021". dw.com. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ "Melilla migrant deaths spark anger in Spain". BBC News. 27 June 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
- ^ Rahhou, Jihane. "Amazigh New Year Becomes Official National Holiday in Morocco". moroccoworldnews. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
- ^ "King Mohammed VI declares the Amazigh New Year an official holiday". HESPRESS English - Morocco News. 3 May 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
- ^ "Timeline: The Deadly September 8 Earthquake in Morocco". moroccoworldnews.com.
Bibliography
- Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 9780521337670.
- Chandler, James A. "Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate, 1898–1927," Journal of Contemporary History 10 (April 1975): 301–22.
- Pennell, C. R. Morocco Since 1830: A History, New York University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780814766774
- Pennell, C. R. Morocco: From Empire to Independence, Oneworld Publications, 2013. ISBN 9781780744551 (preview)
- Stenner, David. Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State (Stanford UP, 2019). online review
- Terrasse, Henri. History of Morocco, Éd. Atlantides, 1952.
- Woolman, David. Rebels in the Rif: Abd-el-Krim and the Rif Rebellion (Stanford UP, 1967)
- Yolanda Aixelà-Cabré. Spain's African Colonial Legacies: Morocco and Equatorial Guinea Compared (Brill, 2022) online review
In French
- David Bensoussan, Il était une fois le Maroc : témoignages du passé judéo-marocain, Éd. du Lys, 2010. ISBN 2-922505-14-6.
- ISBN 2-262-01644-5
- Michel Abitbol, Histoire du Maroc, Éd. Perrin, 2009. ISBN 9782262023881