History of India (1947–present)
The history of independent India or history of Republic of India began when the country became an independent sovereign state within the British Commonwealth on 15 August 1947. Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, affected a political and economic unification of the subcontinent. When British rule came to an end in 1947, the subcontinent was partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries—India, with a majority of Hindus, and Pakistan, with a majority of Muslims.[1] Concurrently the Muslim-majority northwest and east of British India was separated into the Dominion of Pakistan, by the Partition of India. The partition led to a population transfer of more than 10 million people between India and Pakistan and the death of about one million people. Indian National Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India, but the leader most associated with the independence struggle, Mahatma Gandhi, accepted no office. The constitution adopted in 1950 made India a democratic republic with Westminster style parliamentary system of government, both at federal and state level respectively. The democracy has been sustained since then. India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newly independent states.[2]
The country has faced
History of India |
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Timeline |
India is
From being a relatively struggling country in its formative years,[3] the Republic of India has emerged as a fast growing G20 major economy.[4][5] India has sometimes been referred to as a great power and a potential superpower given its large and growing economy, military and population.[6][7][8][9]
1947–1950: Dominion of India
Independent India's first years were marked with turbulent events—a massive exchange of population with Pakistan, the
Partition of India
The partition of India was outlined in the
An estimated 3.5 million
I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to be a nation apart from the parent stock.
—opposing the division of India on the basis of religion in 1945.[19]
The assassination of Mohandas Gandhi on 30 January 1948 was carried out by Nathuram Godse, who held him responsible for partition and charged that Mohandas Gandhi was appeasing Muslims. More than one million people flooded the streets of Delhi to follow the procession to cremation grounds and pay their last respects.
In 1949, India recorded almost 1 million Hindu refugees into
Integration of princely states
In July 1946,
There were three states that proved more difficult to integrate than others:
- Hinduand despite Junagadh not being contiguous with Pakistan.
- Operation Polo, after the failure of negotiations, which was done between 13 and 29 September 1948. It was incorporated as a state of India the next year.
- The state of First Indo-Pakistani War which lasted from 1947 to 1949. Eventually, a United Nations-overseen ceasefire was agreed that left India in control of two-thirds of the contested region. Jawaharlal Nehru initially agreed to Mountbatten'sproposal that a plebiscite be held in the entire state as soon as hostilities ceased, and a UN-sponsored cease-fire was agreed to by both parties on 1 January 1949. No statewide plebiscite was held, however, for in 1954, after Pakistan began to receive arms from the United States, Nehru withdrew his support. The Indian Constitution came into force in Kashmir on 26 January 1950 with special clauses for the state.
Constitution
The Constitution of India was adopted by the
India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 was fought between
Indian losses in the war totalled 1,104 killed and 3,154 wounded;[35] Pakistani, about 6,000 killed and 14,000 wounded.[36] Neutral assessments state India emerged victorious as it successfully defended the majority of the contested territory.[37][38][39][40][41]
Governance and politics
India held its first national elections under the Constitution in
Nehru administration (1952–1964)
Nehru can be regarded as the founder of the modern Indian state. Parekh attributes this to the national philosophy Nehru formulated for India. For him, modernisation was the national philosophy, with seven goals: national unity, parliamentary democracy, industrialisation, socialism, development of the scientific temper, and non-alignment. In Parekh's opinion, the philosophy and the policies that resulted from this benefited a large section of society such as public sector workers, industrial houses, and middle and upper peasantry. However, it failed to benefit or satisfy the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the
The death of Vallabhbhai Patel in 1950 left Nehru as the sole remaining iconic national leader, and soon the situation became such that Nehru could implement his vision for India without hindrance.[44]
Nehru implemented economic policies based on
Nehru led the Congress to further election victories in 1957 and 1962. During his tenure, the Indian Parliament passed extensive reforms that increased the legal rights of women in Hindu society, Potti Sreeramulu's fast-unto-death, and consequent death for the demand of an Andhra State in 1952 sparked a major re-shaping of the Indian Union. Nehru appointed the States Re-organisation Commission, upon whose recommendations the States Reorganisation Act was passed in 1956. Old states were dissolved and new states created on the lines of shared linguistic and ethnic demographics. The separation of Kerala and the Telugu-speaking regions of Madras State enabled the creation of an exclusively Tamil-speaking state of Tamil Nadu. On 1 May 1960, the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were created out of the bilingual Bombay State, and on 1 November 1966, the larger Punjab state was divided into the smaller, Punjabi-speaking Punjab and Haryanvi-speaking Haryana states.[53]
In pre-independence India, the main parties were the Congress and the Muslim league.There were also many other parties such as the States reorganisation
Development of a multi-party system
Swatantra Party
On 4 June 1959, shortly after the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress,
In his short essay "Our Democracy", Rajagopalachari argued the necessity of a right-wing alternative to the Congress: "since ... the Congress Party has swung to the Left, what is wanted is not an ultra or outer-Left [viz. the CPI or the Praja Socialist Party, PSP], but a strong and articulate Right."[58] Rajagopalachari also said the opposition must: "operate not privately and behind the closed doors of the party meeting, but openly and periodically through the electorate."[58] He outlined the goals of the Swatantra Party through twenty-one "fundamental principles" in the foundation document.[61] The party stood for equality and opposed government control over the private sector.[62][63] Rajagopalachari sharply criticised the bureaucracy and coined the term "licence-permit Raj" to describe Nehru's elaborate system of permissions and licences required for an individual to set up a private enterprise. Rajagopalachari's personality became a rallying point for the party.[58]
Rajagopalachari's efforts to build an anti-Congress front led to a patch-up with his former adversary
Foreign policy and military conflicts
Nehru's foreign policy was the inspiration of the
India has fought a total of four
In 1961, after continual petitions for a peaceful handover, India invaded and annexed the Portuguese colony of Goa on the west coast of India.[70]
In 1962 China and India engaged in the brief Sino-Indian War over the border in the Himalayas. The war was a complete rout for the Indians and led to a refocusing on arms build-up and an improvement in relations with the United States. China withdrew from disputed territory in the contested Chinese South Tibet and Indian North-East Frontier Agency that it crossed during the war. India disputes China's sovereignty over the smaller Aksai Chin territory that it controls on the western part of the Sino-Indian border.[71]
-
Indian Army officers of the 4th Sikh Regiment captured a Police Station inIndo-Pakistani War of 1965.
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The Indian Air Force used 20 small and lightweight Canberra bombers against theOperation Vijay, which led to the Annexation of Goa.
-
Disputed areas in the western sector of the Sino-Indian border including Aksai Chin, 1988 CIA map
1960s after Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru died on 27 May 1964, and
In 1967, India and China again engaged with each other in Sino-Indian War of 1967 after the PLA soldiers opened fire on the Indian soldiers who were making a fence on the border in Nathu La. The Indian forces successfully repelled Chinese forces and the outcome saw Chinese defeat with their withdrawal from Sikkim.
Morarji Desai entered Gandhi's government as deputy prime minister and finance minister, and with senior Congress politicians attempted to constrain Gandhi's authority. But following the counsel of her political advisor P. N. Haksar, Gandhi resuscitated her popular appeal by a major shift towards socialist policies. She successfully ended the Privy Purse guarantee for former Indian royalty, and waged a major offensive against party hierarchy over the nationalisation of India's banks. Although resisted by Desai and India's business community, the policy was popular with the masses. When Congress politicians attempted to oust Gandhi by suspending her Congress membership, Gandhi was empowered with a large exodus of members of parliament to her own Congress (R). The bastion of the Indian freedom struggle, the Indian National Congress, had split in 1969. Gandhi continued to govern with a slim majority.[73]
1970s
In 1971, Indira Gandhi and her Congress (R) were returned to power with a massively increased majority. The nationalisation of banks was carried out, and many other socialist economic and industrial policies enacted. India
Merger of Sikkim
In 1973, anti-royalist riots took place in the
India is said to have stationed 20,000–40,000 troops in a country of only 200,000 during the referendum.[74] On 16 May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian Union, and the monarchy was abolished.[75] To enable the incorporation of the new state, the Indian Parliament amended the Indian Constitution. First, the 35th Amendment laid down a set of conditions that made Sikkim an "associate state", a special designation not used by any other state. A month later, the 36th Amendment repealed the 35th Amendment, and made Sikkim a full state, adding its name to the First Schedule of the Constitution.[76]
Formation of Northeastern states
In the
-
Assam till the 1950s: The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, now a part of Guwahati. After the Sino-Indian War in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated.
-
Meghalaya is mountainous, the most rain-soaked state of India. Meghalaya became a state on 21 January 1972.
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Ujjayanta Palace, which houses the Tripura State Museum. Tripura became a state on 21 January 1972.
-
Golden Pagoda, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh, is one of the notable Buddhist temples in India. Arunachal Pradesh became a state on 20 February 1987.
-
A school campus in Mizoram, which has one of the highest literacy rates in India. Mizoram became a state on 20 February 1987.
Green revolution and Operation Flood
India's population passed the 500 million mark in the early 1970s, but its long-standing food crisis was resolved with greatly improved agricultural productivity due to the Green Revolution. The government sponsored modern agricultural implements, new varieties of generic seeds, and increased financial assistance to farmers that increased the yield of food crops such as wheat, rice and corn, as well as commercial crops like cotton, tea, tobacco and coffee.[79] Increased agricultural productivity expanded across the states of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Punjab.
Under
Bangladesh Liberation War
The
The crisis started with Punjabi dominated Pakistani army refusing to surrender power to the newly elected but mainly Bengali
During the conflict, members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias called the Razakars raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape.[86][87][88][89] The murders and rapes led to an estimated eight to ten million people to flee East Pakistan to seek refuge in India.[90][91][92][93][94]Official de-jure war began with
Indian Emergency
Prelude to the Emergency
India in the first half of the 1970s faced high inflation caused by the 1973 oil crisis which resulted in cost of oil imports to rise substantially, the cost of the Bangladesh war and the refugee resettlement, and food shortages caused by droughts in parts of the country.The economic and social problems caused by high inflation, as well as allegations of corruption against Indira Gandhi and her government, caused increasing political unrest across India during 1973–74. This included the Railway Strike in 1974, the Maoist Naxalite movement, the Bihar student agitations, the United Women's Anti- Price Rise Front in Maharashtra and the Nav Nirman movement in Gujarat.[104][105]
Declaration of the emergency
On 25 June 1975, Gandhi advised President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of emergency under the constitution, which allowed the central government to assume sweeping powers to defend law and order in the nation. Explaining the breakdown of law and order and threat to national security as her primary reasons, Gandhi suspended many civil liberties and postponed elections at national and state levels.[107][108] Non-Congress governments in Indian states were dismissed, and nearly 1,000 opposition political leaders and activists were imprisoned.[109] Her government also introduced a contentious programme of compulsory birth control.[110][111][112][113][114][115] Strikes and public protests were outlawed in all forms.
Life during the emergency
India's economy benefited from an end to paralysing strikes and political disorder. India announced a 20-point programme which enhanced agricultural and industrial production, increasing national growth, productivity, and job growth. But many organs of government and many Congress politicians were accused of corruption and authoritarian conduct. Police officers were accused of arresting and torturing innocent people. Indira's then twentynine year old son, and unofficial political advisor,
Janata interlude
Indira Gandhi's Congress Party called for general elections in 1977, only to suffer a humiliating electoral defeat at the hands of the Janata Party, an amalgamation of opposition parties.[118] Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India. The Desai administration established tribunals to investigate Emergency-era abuses, and Indira and Sanjay Gandhi were arrested after a report from the Shah Commission.[119]
In 1979, the coalition crumbled and Charan Singh formed an interim government. The Janata Party had become intensely unpopular due to its internecine warfare, and a perceived lack of leadership on solving India's serious economic and social problems.
1980s
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2021) |
Indira Gandhi and her Congress Party splinter group, the
But the rise of an insurgency in Punjab would jeopardise India's security. In
On 31 October 1984, the Prime Minister's own Sikh bodyguards assassinated her, and
Rajiv Gandhi administration
The Congress party chose Rajiv Gandhi, Indira's older son, as the next prime minister. Rajiv had been elected to Parliament only in 1982, and at 40, was the youngest national political leader and prime minister ever. But his youth and inexperience were an asset in the eyes of citizens tired of the inefficacy and corruption of career politicians, and looking for newer policies and a fresh start to resolve the country's long-standing problems. The Parliament was dissolved, and Rajiv led the Congress party to its largest majority in history (over 415 seats out of 545 possible), reaping a sympathy vote over his mother's assassination.[121]
Rajiv Gandhi initiated a series of reforms: the
In December 1984, gas leaked out at the Union Carbide pesticides plant in the central Indian city of Bhopal. Thousands were killed immediately, while many more subsequently died or were left disabled.[110]
India in 1987 brokered an agreement with the Government of
Rajiv Gandhi's image as an honest politician (he was nicknamed "Mr. Clean" by the press) was shattered when the Bofors scandal broke, revealing that senior government officials had taken bribes over defence contracts by a Swedish guns producer.[124]
Janata Dal
General elections in 1989 gave Rajiv's Congress a plurality, much less than the majority which propelled him to power.[125]
Power came instead to his former finance and defence minister,
1990s
The then-Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir Farooq Abdullah (son of former Chief Minister Sheikh Abdullah) announced an alliance with the ruling Congress party for the elections of 1987. But, the elections were allegedly rigged in favour of him. This led to the rise of the armed extremist insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir composed, in part, of those who unfairly lost elections. India has constantly maintained the position of blaming Pakistan for supplying these groups with logistical support, arms, recruits and training.[129]
Militants in
On 21 May 1991, while former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi campaigned in
But India was rocked by communal violence (see
Economic reforms
Under the
A rising generation of well-educated and skilled professionals in scientific sectors of the industry began propelling the Indian economy, as the information technology industry took hold across India with the proliferation of computers. The new technologies increased the efficiency of activity in almost every type of industry, which also benefitted from the availability of skilled labor. Foreign investment and outsourcing of jobs to India's labor markets further enhanced India's economic growth. A large middle class has arisen across India, which has increased the demand, and thus the production of a wide array of
Era of coalitions
The
In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament (182), but this fell far short of a majority. On 20 March 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government, with Vajpayee again serving as prime minister. On 11 and 13 May 1998, this government conducted a series of five underground nuclear weapons tests, known collectively as Pokhran-II — which caused Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year.[139] India's nuclear tests prompted President of the United States Bill Clinton and Japan to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act and led to widespread international condemnation.
In the early months of 1999, Prime Minister Vajpayee made a historic bus trip to Pakistan and met with Pakistan's prime minister Nawaz Sharif, signing the bilateral Lahore peace declaration.[110]
In April 1999, the coalition government led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. In May and June 1999, India discovered an elaborate campaign of terrorist infiltration that resulted in the Kargil War in Kashmir, derailing a promising peace process that had begun only three months earlier when Prime Minister Vajpayee visited Pakistan, inaugurating the Delhi-Lahore bus service. Indian forces killed Pakistan-backed infiltrators and reclaimed important border posts in high-altitude warfare.[140]
Soaring on popularity earned following the successful conclusion of the Kargil conflict, the National Democratic Alliance—a new coalition led by the BJP—gained a majority to form a government with Vajpayee as prime minister in October 1999. The end of the millennium was devastating to India, as a cyclone hit Orissa, killing at least 10,000.[110]
2000s
Under Bharatiya Janata Party
In May 2000, India's population exceeded 1 billion. President of the United States Bill Clinton made a groundbreaking visit to India to improve ties between the two nations. In January, massive earthquakes hit Gujarat state, killing at least 30,000.
Prime Minister Vajpayee met with Pakistan's President Pervez Musharraf in the first summit between Pakistan and India in more than two years in the middle of 2001. But the meeting failed without a breakthrough or even a joint statement because of differences over Kashmir region.[110]
Three new states — Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand (originally Uttaranchal) — were formed in November 2000.
The National Democratic Alliance government's credibility was adversely affected by a number of political scandals (such as allegations that the Defence Minister
In 2002, 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from Ayodhya were killed in a train fire in Godhra, Gujarat. This sparked off the 2002 Gujarat riots, leading to the deaths of 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus and with 223 people reported missing.
Throughout 2003, India's speedy economic progress, political stability, and a rejuvenated peace initiative with Pakistan increased the government's popularity. India and Pakistan agreed to resume direct air links and to allow overflights, and a groundbreaking meeting was held between the Indian government and moderate Kashmir separatists.[110] The Golden Quadrilateral project aimed to link India's corners with a network of modern highways.
Congress rule returns
In January 2004 Prime Minister Vajpayee recommended early dissolution of the
By the end of 2004, India began to withdraw some of its troops from Kashmir. By the middle of the next year, the Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus service was inaugurated, the first in 60 years to operate between Indian-administered and Pakistani-administered Kashmirs. However, in May 2006, suspected Islamic extremist militants killed 35 Hindus in the worst attacks in Indian-administered Kashmir for several months.[110]
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami devastated Indian coastlines and islands, killing an estimated 18,000 and displacing around 650,000. The tsunami was caused by a powerful undersea earthquake off the Indonesian coast. Natural disasters such as the Mumbai floods (killing more than 1,000) and Kashmir earthquake (killing 79,000) hit the subcontinent in the next year. In February 2006, the United Progressive Alliance government launched India's largest-ever rural jobs scheme, aimed at lifting around 60 million families out of poverty.[110]
The United States and India signed a
In 2007, India got its first female President as
In 2008 October, India successfully launched its first mission to the Moon, the uncrewed
In November 2008, Mumbai attacks took place. India blamed militants from Pakistan for the attacks and announced a "pause" in the ongoing peace process.[110]
In July 2009, the
In the Indian general election in 2009, the United Progressive Alliance won a convincing and resounding 262 seats, with Congress alone winning 206 seats. However, the Congress-led government faced many allegations of corruption. Inflation rose to an all-time high, and the ever-increasing prices of food commodities caused widespread agitation.
On 8 November 2009, in spite of strong protests by China, which claims the whole of Arunachal Pradesh as its own,[150] the 14th Dalai Lama visited Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh, which was a monumental event to the people of the region, and the abbot of the monastery greeted him with much fanfare and adulation.[151]
21st-century India is facing the Naxalite–Maoist rebels, in the words of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, India's "greatest internal security challenge",[152] and other terrorist tensions (such as Islamist terrorist campaigns in and out of Jammu & Kashmir and terrorism in India's Northeast).[152][153] Terrorism has increased in India, with bomb blasts in leading cities like Mumbai, New Delhi, Jaipur, Bangalore, and Hyderabad.[140] In the new millennium, India improved relations with many countries and foreign unions including the United States, the European Union, Israel, and the People's Republic of China.[110] The economy of India has grown at a very rapid pace. India was now being looked at as a potential superpower.[143][144]
2010s
Congress rule continues
The
Despite all this, India showed great promise with a higher growth rate in gross domestic product.[154] In January 2011, India assumed a nonpermanent seat in the United Nations Security Council for the 2011–12 term. In 2004, India had launched an application for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, along with Brazil, Germany and Japan. In March, India overtook China to become the world's largest importer of arms.[110]
The Telangana movement reached its peak in 2011–12, leading to formation of India's 29th state, Telangana, in June 2014.
The 2012 Delhi gang rape & murder case and subsequent protests resulted in changes in the laws related to rape and offences against women. In April 2013, the Saradha Group scandal was unearthed, caused by the collapse of a Ponzi scheme run by Saradha Group, a consortium of over 200 private companies in Eastern India, causing an estimated loss of INR 200–300 billion (US$4–6 billion) to over 1.7 million depositors.[160][161][162] In December 2013, the Supreme Court of India overturned the Delhi High Court ruling on Sec 377, criminalising homosexual sex between consenting adults once again in the country.[163][164]
In August – September 2013, clashes between Hindus and Muslims in Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, resulted in at least 62 deaths,[165] injured 93, and left more than 50,000 displaced.[166][167][168][169]
2014 – Return of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Government
The
The largest tax reform in India's history, the Goods and Services Tax (GST), was introduced in 2017. A vehicle-borne suicide bomber assaulted a convoy of cars carrying Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) troops on the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway in the Pulwama area of Jammu and Kashmir.[181]
India carried out the 2019 Balakot airstrike when its airplanes flew across the de facto border in Kashmir and dropped bombs in the town of Balakot in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region.[182] After a dogfight between Indian and Pakistani fighter pilots. Abhinandan Varthaman, an Indian wing commander, was taken prisoner by the Pakistani side. Acting nonetheless under pressure from various world leaders and constrained by the Vienna Convention, Pakistan was compelled to free the Indian pilot.[183]
By repealing Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, the state of Jammu and Kashmir was separated into two separate union territories known as Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.[184] The BJP government introduced the Citizenship Amendment Act in 2019, sparking widespread protests.[185]
-
Prime Minister Modi at the launch of the Make in India programme which was meant to encourage companies to manufacture their products in India and also increase their investment.
-
10thIndian Prime Ministerto visit Israel.
-
Independence Day speech.[186]
2020s
In February 2020,
After a year long protests by farmers, Prime minister Modi in November 2021 repealed the laws in three minutes in the Lok Sabha and nine minutes in the Rajya Sabha without debate.[193]
COVID-19 pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic in India began on 30 January 2020, when the first case was reported in Thrissur.[194] Two months later in March 2020, prime minister Modi imposed a complete lockdown in the country at four hours notice to stop the spread of COVID-19. This led to millions losing their jobs and many lost their lives. The Indian economy also shrunk in percentage terms by double digit numbers. In September 2020, India's health minister Harsh Vardhan stated that the country planned to approve and begin distribution of a vaccine by the first quarter of 2021.[195] Vaccination against COVID-19 started in India on 16 January 2021. By early April 2021, second wave of infections took hold in the country with destructive consequences.[196] According to Christopher Clary, assistant professor of political science at the State University of New York, technocratic competence had been entirely missing from government's response to the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in India.[197] The second wave placed a major strain on the healthcare system,[198] including shortage of liquid medical oxygen. The number of new cases had begun to steadily drop by late-May and vaccination gained momentum again. India administered 1 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccine on 21 October 2021.[199] Although official number of Covid related deaths in India during the pandemic is less than half a million, excess mortality rates for all causes has been estimated at between 3 and 5 million deaths.[200]
Post COVID India
On 25 July 2022,
Economy
The economic history of the India since 1947 can be divided into two epochs: 1.1947-91 which saw heavy government involvement in the economy, and a slow growth rate in GDP 2.1991–present which saw deregulation and a rapid growth in GDP, and reduction in poverty.
Pre-liberalisation period (1947–1991)
Indian
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician
Since 1965, the use of
In 1984, Rajiv Gandhi promised economic liberalization, he made V. P. Singh the finance minister, who tried to reduce tax evasion and tax receipts rose due to this crackdown although taxes were lowered. This process lost its momentum during the later tenure of Mr. Gandhi as his government was marred by scandals.
Post-liberalisation period (since 1991)
The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading partner, and the Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance-of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans.[219] India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which in return demanded de-regulation.[220]
In response, the Narasimha Rao government, including Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated economic reforms in 1991. The reforms did away with the Licence Raj, reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors.[221] Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained unchanged since 1991, although no government had tried taking on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers and on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies.[222] By the turn of the 21st century, India had progressed towards a free-market economy, with a substantial reduction in state control of the economy and increased financial liberalisation.[223] This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates, and food security, although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents.[224]
In the second decade of this century, the economy of India rose from the ninth-largest to the fifth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP, surpassing the UK, France, Italy and Brazil.[225] The economy had started to slow down in the second term of Manmohan Singh's tenure but started a recovery in 2013–14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4% from the previous year's 5.5%. The acceleration continued through 2014–15 and 2015–16 with growth rates of 7.5% and 8.0% respectively in the early early years under Narendra Modi's first term. However the growth rate subsequently decelerated, to 7.1% and 6.6% in 2016–17 and 2017–18 respectively,[226] partly because of the disruptive effects of 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax (India).[227]
COVID-19 pandemic and aftermath (2020–present)
During the
See also
- Economic history of India
- Economy of India
- Military history of India
- Outline of ancient India
- Politics of India
- The Emergency (India)
- India (disambiguation)
- Licence Raj
Notes
- ^ British India consisted of those regions of the British Raj, or the British Indian Empire, which were directly administered by Britain; other regions of nominal sovereignty that were indirectly ruled by Britain were called princely states.
References
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- ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, archivedfrom the original on 25 June 2020, retrieved 27 December 2019
- ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0, archivedfrom the original on 14 February 2020, retrieved 27 December 2019
- ^ "France, UK back India's bid for permanent UN Security Council seat". India Today.
- ^ "NIC Global Trend". Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
- ^ "Lowy Institute paper – The Next Economic Giant" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
- ^ "India: Asia's Other Superpower Breaks Out – Newsweek: World News – MSNBC.com". 28 March 2006. Archived from the original on 28 March 2006. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
- ^ "India is quietly laying claim to economic superpower status". The Guardian. 12 September 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
- ^ The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 28, No. 4 (October–December 1967), pp. 236–241
- ^ "Patel vs. Gandhi?". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 19 November 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
- S2CID 134229667,
The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations ... The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. ... Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious 'communal' lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.
- ISBN 978-0-300-23032-1,
South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India
- ^ Talbot & Singh 2009, p. [page needed]: "When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. ... Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent's division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis"
- describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of 'overseas Indians'; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.
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The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among the members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. Within a period of some three or four months in late 1947 a number of Hindus and Sikhs estimated at some 5 million moved from West Punjab into India, while 5.5 million Muslims travelled in the opposite direction. The outcome, akin to what today is called 'ethnic cleansing', produced an Indian Punjab 60 per cent Hindu and 35 per cent Sikh, while the Pakistan Punjab became almost wholly Muslim. A similar, though less extensive, migration took place between east and west Bengal, though murderous attacks on fleeing refugees, with the attendant loss of life, were much less extensive in the eastern region. Even those who did not move, if of the wrong community, often found themselves treated as though they were the enemy. In Delhi itself, the city's Muslims, cowering in an old fort, were for several months after partition regarded with intense suspicion and hostility. Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people.
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- Ghose, Sankar (1993). Jawaharlal Nehru. Allied Publishers. ISBN 978-81-7023-369-5.
- Kopstein, Jeffrey (2005). Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44604-4.
- Kumar, Dharma (2005). The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume II : c. 1757–2003. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-2710-2.
- Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006). A Concise History of India (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-531503-5.
- Richardson, Hugh E. (1984), Tibet and its History (Second ed.), Boulder/London: Shambala, ISBN 9780877737896
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- Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, retrieved 15 November 2015
- "Economic reforms in India: Task force report" (PDF). University of Chicago. p. 32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2009.
Further reading
- Bipan Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee and Aditya Mukherjee. "India Since Independence"
- Bates, Crispin, and Subho Basu. The Politics of Modern India since Independence (Routledge/Edinburgh South Asian Studies Series) (2011)
- Brass, Paul R. The Politics of India since Independence (1980)
- Vasudha Dalmia; Rashmi Sadana, eds. (2012). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Indian Culture. Cambridge University Press.
- Datt, Ruddar; Sundharam, K.P.M. Indian Economy (2009) New Delhi. 978-81-219-0298-4
- Dixit, Jyotindra Nath (2004). Makers of India's foreign policy: Raja Ram Mohun Roy to Yashwant Sinha. HarperCollins. ISBN 9788172235925.
- Frank, Katherine (2002). Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780395730973.
- Ghosh, Anjali (2009). India's Foreign Policy. Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131710258.
- Gopal, Sarvepalli. Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Volume Two, 1947-1956 (1979); Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography: 1956-64 Vol 3 (1985)
- Guha, Ramachandra (2011). India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy. Pan Macmillan.
- Guha, Ramachandra. Makers of Modern India (2011) excerpt and text search
- Jain, B. M. (2009). Global Power: India's Foreign Policy, 1947–2006. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739121450.
- Kapila, Uma (2009). Indian Economy Since Independence. Academic Foundation. p. 854. ISBN 9788171887088.
- McCartney, Matthew. India – The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2007 (2009); Political Economy, Growth and Liberalisation in India, 1991-2008 (2009) excerpt and text search
- Mansingh, Surjit. The A to Z of India (The A to Z Guide Series) (2010)
- Nilekani, Nandan; and Thomas L. Friedman (2010). Imagining India: The Idea of a Renewed Nation. Penguin. ISBN 9781101024546.
- Panagariya, Arvind (2008). India: The Emerging Giant. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531503-5.
- Saravanan, Velayutham. Environmental History of Modern India: Land, Population, Technology and Development (Bloomsbury Publishing India, 2022) online review
- Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4
- Tomlinson, B.R. The Economy of Modern India 1860–1970 (1996) excerpt and text search
- Zachariah, Benjamin. Nehru (Routledge Historical Biographies) (2004) excerpt and text search
Primary sources
- Appadorai A., ed. Select Documents on India's Foreign Policy and Relations (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982)
External links
- India country profile BBC India profile
History of South Asia | |
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(330–323 BC) | |
Maurya Empire | (321–184 BC) |
Seleucid India | (312–303 BC) |
Sangam period | (c. 600 BC – c. 300 AD) |
Pandya Empire | (c. 300 BC – AD 1345) |
Chera Kingdom | (c. 300 BC – AD 1102) |
Chola Empire | (c. 300 BC – AD 1279) |
Pallava Empire | (c. 250 AD – AD 800) |
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire | (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500) |
Parthian Empire | (247 BC – AD 224) |