India House
India House was a student residence that existed between 1905 and 1910 at Cromwell Avenue in
Patrons of India House published an anti-colonialist newspaper,
The investigations by Scotland Yard and the Indian Political Intelligence Office that followed the assassination sent the organisation into decline. A crackdown on India House activities by the Metropolitan Police prompted a number of its members to leave Britain for France, Germany and the United States. Many members of the house were involved in revolutionary conspiracies in India. The network created by India House played a key part in the Hindu–German Conspiracy for nationalist revolution in India during World War I. In the coming decades, India House alumni went on to play a leading role in the founding of Indian communism and Hindu nationalism.
Background
The consolidation of the British East India Company's rule in the Indian subcontinent during the 18th century brought about socio-economic changes which led to the rise of an Indian middle class and steadily eroded pre-colonial socio-religious institutions and barriers.[2] The emerging economic and financial power of Indian business-owners and merchants and the professional class brought them increasingly into conflict with the British Raj. A rising political consciousness among the native Indian social elite (including lawyers, doctors, university graduates, government officials and similar groups) spawned an Indian identity[3][4] and fed a growing nationalist sentiment in India in the last decades of the nineteenth century.[5]
The creation in 1885 of the
From its inception, the Congress had also sought to shape public opinion in Britain in favour of Indian political autonomy.[6][8] The Congress's British Committee, established in 1889, published a periodical called India which featured moderate, loyalist opinion and provided information about India tailored to a British readership.[9] The committee was successful in calling the British public's attention to issues of civil liberties in India, but it largely failed to bring about political change, prompting socialists such as Henry Hyndman to advocate a more radical approach.[10] In 1893 an "Indian committee" was established in the British Parliament as a pressure group to influence policy directly,[10][11][12] but it grew increasingly distant from an emerging movement which advocated absolute Indian self-governance. Nationalist leaders in India (such as Bipin Chandra Pal, who led the agitation against the Bengal partition) and Indian students in Britain criticised the committee for what they perceived as its overcautious approach.[8][11] Against this background, coincident with the political upheaval caused by the 1905 partition of Bengal, a nationalist lawyer named Shyamji Krishna Varma founded India House in London.[13]
India House
India House is a large
Indian Home Rule Society
Krishna Varma admired
Krishna Varma co-founded the IHRS in February 1905,
The
The Indian Sociologist
In 1904, Krishna Varma founded The Indian Sociologist (TIS), a penny monthly (with Spencer's dictum as its motto),[16] as a challenge to the British Committee's Indian.[8] The title of the publication was intended to convey Krishna Varma's conviction that the ideological basis of Indian independence from Britain was to the discipline of sociology.[33] TIS was critical of the moderate loyalist approach and its appeal to British liberalism, exemplified by the work of Indian leader G.K. Gokhale; instead, TIS advocated Indian self-rule. It was critical of the British Committee, whose members – being mostly from the Indian Civil Service – were in Krishna Varma's view complicit in exploitation of India.[8] TIS quoted extensively from the works of British writers, which Krishna Varma interpreted to explain his views that the Raj was colonial exploitation, and that the Indians had a right to oppose it, by violence if necessary.[8] It advocated confrontation and demands rather than petition and accommodation.[34] However, Krishna Varma's views and justifications of political violence in nationalist struggle were still cautious, considering violence as a last resort. His support was initially intellectual, and he was not actively involved in planning revolutionary violence.[35] Freedom of the press and the liberal approach of the British establishment meant Krishna Varma could air views that would have been rapidly suppressed in India.[8]
The views expressed in TIS drew criticisms from ex-Indian civil servants in the British press and Parliament. Highlighting Krishna Varma's citation of British writers and lack of reference to Indian tradition or values, they argued that he was disconnected from the Indian situation and Indian feelings, and was intellectually dependent on Britain.
Savarkar
After Krishna Varma's departure, the organisation found a new leader in
Impressed and influenced by the
Transformation
India House, which now housed the Abhinav Bharat Society and its relatively peaceful front the Free India Society, rapidly developed into a radical meeting ground quite different from the IHRS. Unlike the latter, it became wholly self-reliant with regard to finances and organisation, and it developed independent nationalist ideologies that moved away from European philosophies. Under Savarkar's influence, it drew inspiration from past Indian revolutionary movements, religious scriptures (including the Bhagavad Gita), and Savarkar's own studies in Indian history, including The Indian War of Independence.[23] Savarkar translated Giuseppe Mazzini's autobiography into Marathi and extolled the virtues of secret societies.[38]
India House was soon transformed into the headquarters of the Indian revolutionary movement in Britain.
Abhinav Bharat Society had two goals: to create through propaganda in Europe and North America an Indian public opinion in favour of nationalist revolution, and to raise funds, knowledge and supplies to carry out such a revolution.[54] It emphasised actions of self-sacrifice by its members for the Indian cause. These were revolutionary activities which the masses could emulate, but which did not require a mass movement.[53] The outbuilding of India House was converted to a "war workshop" where chemistry students attempted to produce explosives and manufacture bombs, while the printing press turned out "seditious" literature, including bomb-making manuals and pamphlets promoting violence toward Europeans in India. In the house was an arsenal of small arms that were intermittently dispatched to India through different avenues.[15] Savarkar was at the heart of these, spending a great deal of time in the explosives workshop and emerging on some evenings, according to a fellow revolutionary, "with telltale yellow stains of picric acid on his hands".[55] The residents of India House and members of Abhinav Bharat practiced shooting at a range in Tottenham Court Road in central London, and rehearsed assassinations they planned to carry out.[55]
The deliveries of weapons to India included, among others, a number of Browning pistols smuggled by Chaturbhuj Amin, Chanjeri Rao, and V. V. S. Aiyar when they returned to India.
By 1908, the popularity of the India House group had overtaken the London Indian Society (LIS), established in 1865 by Dadabhai Naoroji and until then the largest association of Indians in London. Subsequently, India House took over the control of LIS when, at the annual general meeting that year, members of India House packed the gathering and ousted the old guard of the society.[61]
Culmination
The activities of India House did not go unnoticed. In addition to questions raised in official Indian and British circles, Savarkar's unrestrained views had been published in English newspapers including the
In the aftermath of the assassination, India House was rapidly shut down. Investigations into the killing were expanded to look for broader conspiracies originating from India House; although Scotland Yard stated that none existed, Indian intelligence sources suggested otherwise.[64] These sources further suggested that Dhingra's intended target was John Morley, the Secretary of State for India himself. Savarkar possessed a copy of a written political statement by Dhingra which was confiscated at the latter's arrest. Its existence was denied by police, but through Irish sympathiser David Garnett Savarkar had this published in the Daily News on the day Dhingra was sentenced to death.[65] A number of sources suggested the assassination was in fact Savarkar's idea, and that he planned further action in Britain as well as India.[64] In March 1910, Savarkar was arrested upon his return to London from Paris and later deported to India.[66] While he was held at Brixton Prison during the deportation hearing, an attempt was made in May 1910 by the remnant of India House to storm his prison van and free him. This plot was coordinated with help from Irish republicans led by Maud Gonne. However, the plan failed when the ambush stormed an empty decoy van while Savarkar was transported along a different route.[67] In the following year, police and political sources brought pressure on the residents of India House to leave England. While some of its leaders like Krishna Varma had already fled to Europe, others like Chattopadhyaya moved to Germany. Many others moved to Paris.[68] With the influence and work of a large number of nationalist students moving to the city, the Paris Indian Society gradually took India House's place as the centre of Indian nationalism on the continent.[69]
Countermeasures
Although India House had stated its goals in The Indian Sociologist, the threat arising from the organisation was initially not considered serious by either Indian intelligence or British Special Branch.[57][70] This was compounded by a lack of clarity and communication from the Department of Criminal Intelligence operating in India under Charles Cleveland, and Scotland Yard's Special Branch.[57] Lack of direction and information from Indian political intelligence, compounded by Lord Morley's reluctance to engage in postal censorship,[71] led to Special Branch underestimating the threat.[71]
Scotland Yard
In spite of these problems, and although Special Branch was wholly inexperienced in dealing with political crime,[70] the first observations of India House by Scotland Yard began as early as 1905. Detectives attended Sunday meetings at India House in May 1907, where they gained access to seditious literature.[71] The appearance of one agent, disguised as an Irish-American by the name of O'Brien, convinced Krishna Varma of the need to decamp to Paris.[71] In June 1908, concrete plans for cooperation between Indian and British police were arranged between India Office and Scotland Yard; the decision was made to place an ex-Indian policeman in charge of surveillance of India House.[72]
The arrival of
After this incident, Kirtikar's reports were probably screened by Savarkar before they were passed on to Scotland Yard. M.P.T. Acharya was at this time instructed by Aiyar and Savarkar to set himself up as an informer to Scotland Yard; they believed this would provide information to the police and help corroborate the reports sent by Kirtikar.[45] Although it pursued Indian students and shadowed them closely, Scotland Yard was severely criticised for its inability to penetrate the organisation. The Viceroy's secretary, William Lee-Warner, was assaulted twice in London: he was slapped in the face in his office by a young Bengali student named Kunjalal Bhattacharji and assaulted in a London park by another Indian student. The Yard's inefficiency was blamed for these events.[72]
Central Criminal Intelligence Department
Unknown to Scotland Yard,[74] by the beginning of 1909 the Indian Department of Criminal Intelligence (DCI) had made covert efforts of its own to infiltrate India House, with more success. An agent named "C" had been residing in India House for nearly a year; after convincing the residents that he was a genuine patriot, he began reporting back to India.[74][75] Possible reasons why DCI did not inform the Yard include a wish not to interfere with London investigations, a desire to maintain control over "C", and a fear of being accused of "deviousness" by the Yard.[74]
However, the DCI agent's first reports in early 1909 were of little value. Only in the months immediately preceding the Curzon Wyllie assassination did they prove useful. In June, the agent described the shooting practice at Tottenham Court range and rifle practice in the back of India House. This was followed by reports of Savarkar and V.V.S. Aiyar (who was considered his lieutenant) advising M.P.T. Acharya on acts of martyrdom.[74] Following the arrest and subsequent transportation of Savarkar's elder brother Ganesh in India on 9 June 1909,[63] C reported increasing ferocity and calls for vengeance in Savarkar's speeches.[63][74] In the following weeks, Savarkar was barred from joining the bar due to his political activity.[64] These were the events leading up to the assassination of Sir Curzon Wyllie. Although it was believed that Savarkar may have personally instructed or trained Dhingra, Metropolitan police were unable to bring a prosecution against the former since he had an alibi for the night.[76]
Indian Special Branch
In the aftermath of Curzon Wyllie's assassination, Metropolitan Police Special Branch was reorganised in July 1909 following a meeting between India Office and the Commissioner of Police Sir Edward Henry. This led to the opening of an Indian Special Branch with a staff of 38 officers by the end of July.[77] It received considerable resources during the investigation of Curzon Wyllie's assassination, and satisfied the demands of Indian Criminal Intelligence with regard to monitoring the Indian seditionist movement in Britain.[77]
The police brought strong pressure on India House and began gathering intelligence on Indian students in London. These, along with threats to their careers, robbed India House of its student support base. It slowly began to disassemble as a centre of radical Indian Nationalism. As
Influence
Political activities at India House were chiefly aimed at young Indians, especially students, in Britain. Political discontent was at the time growing steadily among this group, especially those in touch with the professional class in India and those studying in depth the philosophies of European liberalism.[80] Their discontent was noted among British academic and political circles quite early on, with some voicing fear that these students would take refuge in extremist politics.[80]
Nationalist movement
A committee set up in 1907 under
Under Savarkar, the organisation became the focus of the Indian revolutionary movement abroad and one of the most important links between revolutionary violence in India and Britain.[63][66][76] Although the organisation welcomed both moderates and those with extremist views, the former outnumbered the latter.[84] Significantly, a number of the residents, especially those who agreed with Savarkar's views, did not have any history of participation in nationalist movements in India, suggesting they were indoctrinated during their stay at India House.[53]
More significantly, India House was a source of arms and seditious literature that was rapidly distributed in India. In addition to The Indian Sociologist, pamphlets like Bande Mataram and Oh Martyrs! by Savarkar extolled revolutionary violence. Direct influences and incitement from India House were noted in several incidents of political violence, including assassinations, in India at the time.
India House and its activities had some influence on the subsequent
India Houses abroad
Following the example laid by the original India House, India Houses were opened in the United States and in Japan.
The American branch also invited Bhikaji Cama – who at the time was close to the works of Krishna Varma – to give a series of lectures in the United States. An India House, though not officially allied to the London organisation, was founded in Manhattan in New York in January 1908 with funds from a wealthy lawyer of Irish descent named Myron Phelps. Phelps admired
An India House was opened in Tokyo in 1907.
World War I
Following the liquidation of India House in 1909 and 1910, its members gradually dispersed to different countries in Europe, including France and Germany, as well as the United States. The network founded at India House was to be key in the efforts by the Indian revolutionary movement against the British Raj through World War I. During the war, the
A number of failed mutinies erupted in India in 1914 and 1915, of which the
Indian political intelligence
At this time, the foundation was laid for
Indian Communism
From the time it was founded, India House cultivated a close relationship with socialist movements in Europe. Prominent Socialists of the time like Henry Hyndman were closely linked to the house. Cama cultivated a close relationship with French Socilaists and Russian communists. The IHRS delegation to Stuttgart in 1907 is known to have met with Hyndman,
After World War I, ex-members of India House and erstwhile members of the
Hindu nationalism
A branch of the nationalist and revolutionary philosophy that arose from India House, especially from the works of V.D. Savarkar, was consolidated in India in the 1920s as an explicit ideology of
Commemoration
Krishna Varma's ashes along with those of his wife Bhanuben were repatriated to India in 2003 from Switzerland.
Notes
- ^ a b c Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 334
- ^ Mitra 2006, p. 63
- ^ Croitt & Mjøset 2001, p. 158
- ^ Desai 2005, p. xxxiii
- ^ Desai 2005, p. 30
- ^ a b c Yadav 1992, p. 6
- ^ Bose & Jalal 1998, p. 117
- ^ a b c d e f g Owen 2007, p. 63
- ^ Owen 2007, p. 37
- ^ a b c Yadav 1992, p. 7
- ^ a b c Owen 2007, p. 62
- ^ Pasricha 2008, p. 32
- ^ Abel 2005, p. 110
- ^ "India House". Open University. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d Hopkirk 1997, p. 44
- ^ a b c d e Qur 2005, p. 123
- ^ a b Johnson 1994, p. 119
- ^ Majumdar 1971, p. 299
- ^ a b c Innes 2002, p. 171
- ^ Joseph 2003, p. 59
- ^ Joseph 2003, p. 58
- ^ Bose 2002, p. 4
- ^ a b Owen 2007, p. 67
- ^ Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 330
- ^ Parekh 1999, p. 158
- ^ Sareen 1979, p. 38
- ^ Baruwa 2004, p. 24
- ^ Mahmud 1994, p. 67
- ^ Bose 2002, p. xix
- ^ Adhikari, Rao & Sen 1970, p. 136
- ^ a b Bowcott, Owen (11 November 2015). "Indian lawyer disbarred from Inner Temple a century ago is reinstated". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
- ^ Mahmud 1994, p. 47
- ^ Parekh 1999, p. 159
- ^ Israel 2002, p. 246
- ^ a b Owen 2007, p. 64
- ^ a b c Owen 2007, p. 66
- ^ a b Owen 2007, p. 65
- ^ a b Yadav 1992, p. 8
- ^ Chirol 1910, p. 148
- ^ Lee 2004, p. 379
- ^ Bhatt 2001, p. 80
- ^ a b Joseph 2003, p. 61
- ^ Jaffrelot 1996, p. 26
- ^ Puniyani 2005, p. 212
- ^ a b Yadav 1992, p. 12
- ^ Parel 2000, p. 123
- ^ Wolpert 1962, p. 169
- ^ Ghodke 1990, p. 123
- ^ a b c Yadav 1992, p. 4
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 82
- ^ a b Yadav 1992, p. 9
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bhatt 2001, p. 83
- ^ a b c d e Owen 2007, p. 70
- ^ a b c Bhatt 2001, p. 81
- ^ a b c Hopkirk 2001, p. 45
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 133
- ^ a b c d Hopkirk 2001, p. 46
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 300
- ^ Heehs 1993, p. 90,91
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 98
- ^ Owen 2007, p. 72
- ^ Owen 2007, p. 71
- ^ a b c d e f Yadav 1992, p. 15
- ^ a b c Popplewell 1995, p. 131
- ^ Fryer 1984, p. 269
- ^ a b Hopkirk 2001, p. 49
- ^ McMinn 1992, p. 299
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 22
- ^ a b c Yadav 1992, p. 26
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 127
- ^ a b c d Popplewell 1995, p. 128
- ^ a b c Popplewell 1995, p. 129
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 11
- ^ a b c d e Popplewell 1995, p. 130
- ^ Andreas & Nadelmann 2006, p. 74
- ^ a b Hopkirk 2001, p. 50
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 132
- ^ a b Owen 2007, p. 73
- ^ Popplewell 1995, pp. 138–140, 142
- ^ a b Lahiri 2000, p. 125
- ^ Chambers 2015, p. in; References, chapter 2
- ^ Lahiri 2000, pp. 124–126
- ^ Lahiri 2000, pp. 124–128
- ^ a b c Lahiri 2000, p. 126
- ^ Majumdar 1966, p. 121,147
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 135
- ^ Lahiri 2000, p. 129
- ^ doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/71628. Retrieved 29 October 2015. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ Tickell 2013, p. 137
- ^ a b c Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 333
- ^ a b Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 335
- ^ a b c Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 337
- ^ a b c Fischer-Tinē 2007, p. 338
- ^ Hoover 1985, p. 252
- ^ Brown 1948, p. 300
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 788
- ^ Hopkirk 2001, p. 41
- ^ a b Popplewell 1995, p. 234
- ^ Andreas & Nadelmann 2006, p. 75
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 216,217
- ^ Popplewell 1995, p. 230
- ^ Sinha 2014, p. 48
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 24
- ^ a b c Yadav 1992, p. 25
- ^ Price 2005, p. 68
- ^ Radhan 2002, p. 120
- ^ Yadav 1992, p. 53
- ^ Strachan 2001, p. 815
- ^ Price 2005, p. 109
- ^ Bannerjee 2005, p. 50
- ^ Bhatt 2001, p. 82
- ^ TNN (13 December 2010). "Modi dedicates 'Kranti Teerth' memorial to Shyamji Krishna Verma". The Times of India. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
- ^ Kara 1986, p. 17
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Further reading
- Bose, Arun. Indian Revolutionaries Abroad, 1905–1922. 1971. Bharati Bhawan.
External links
- Shyamji Krishna Verma and India House Archived 15 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai.