India and weapons of mass destruction
Republic of India | |
---|---|
Number of tests to date | 4 (6 Devices fired) |
Peak stockpile | 170 warheads (2024)[1] |
Current stockpile | 170 warheads (2024)[1] |
Maximum missile range | Agni-V - 7,000 to 8,000 kilometres 4,300 to 5,000 miles |
NPT Party | No |
|
India possesses nuclear weapons and previously developed chemical weapons. Although India has not released any official statements about the size of its nuclear arsenal, recent estimates suggest that India has 164 nuclear weapons[4] and has produced enough weapons-grade plutonium for up to 200 nuclear weapons.[10] In 1999, India was estimated to have 800 kilograms (1,800 lb) of separated reactor-grade plutonium, with a total amount of 8,300 kilograms (18,300 lb) of civilian plutonium, enough for approximately 1,000 nuclear weapons.[11][12] India has conducted nuclear weapons tests in a pair of series namely Pokhran I and Pokhran II.[13]
India is a member of three
India maintains a "
Biological weapons
India has ratified the
No information exists in the public domain suggesting interest by the Indian government in the delivery of biological agents by these or any other means. To reiterate the latter point, in October 2002, then-President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam asserted that "India will not make biological weapons. It is cruel to human beings".[19]
Chemical weapons
In 1992, India signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), becoming one of the original signatories of the CWC in 1993,[20] and ratified it on 2 September 1996. According to India's ex-Army Chief General Sundarji, a country having the capability of making nuclear weapons does not need to have chemical weapons, since the dread of chemical weapons could be created only in those countries that do not have nuclear weapons. Others suggested that the fact that India has found chemical weapons dispensable highlighted its confidence in the conventional weapons system at its command.
In June 1997, India declared its stock of chemical weapons (1,045 tonnes of
India has an advanced commercial chemical industry, and produces the bulk of its chemicals for domestic consumption. It is also widely acknowledged that India has an extensive civilian chemical and pharmaceutical industry and annually exports considerable quantities of chemicals to countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Taiwan.[25]
Nuclear weapons
As early as 26 June 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru, soon to be India's first Prime Minister, announced:
As long as the world is constituted as it is, every country will have to devise and use the latest devices for its protection. I have no doubt India will develop her scientific researches and I hope Indian scientists will use the atomic force for constructive purposes. But if India is threatened, she will inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal.[26]
Nehru pursued a policy of formally foregoing nuclear weapons while at the same time constructing a civilian nuclear energy program and by extension the capability to make a nuclear bomb. This policy was motivated by a conventional weapons superiority over its rivals Pakistan and China.
India's loss to China in a brief Himalayan border war in October 1962, provided the New Delhi government impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression.[33] By 1964 India was in a position to develop nuclear weapons.[34] Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri opposed developing nuclear weapons but fell under intense political pressure, including elements within the ruling Indian National Congress. India was also unable to obtain security guarantees from either the United States or the Soviet Union. As a result, Shastri announced that India would pursue the capability of what it called "peaceful nuclear explosions" that could be weaponized in the future.[27]
India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named "
The situation changed again in the late 1980s after the 1987
Neutron bombs
R Chidambaram, who headed India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests, said in a 1999 interview with the Press Trust of India that India is capable of producing a neutron bomb.[37]
India's no-first-use policy
India has a declared nuclear
India's
In 2016,
Indian nuclear triad
Air-launched nuclear weapons
Nuclear-armed fighter-bombers were India's first and only nuclear-capable strike force until 2003 when the country's first land-based nuclear ballistic missiles were fielded.[46]
In addition to their ground-attack role, it is believed that the Dassault Mirage 2000s and SEPECAT Jaguars of the Indian Air Force are able to provide a secondary nuclear-strike role.[47] The SEPECAT Jaguar was designed to be able to carry and deploy nuclear weapons and the Indian Air Force has identified the jet as being capable of delivering Indian nuclear weapons.[48] The most likely delivery method would be the use of bombs that are free-falling and unguided.[49]
Three airbases with four squadrons of Mirage 2000H (about 16 aircraft with 16 bombs from 1st and 7th squadrons of the 40th Wing at
Land-based ballistic missiles
The estimated 68 nuclear warheads[46] of land-based nuclear weapons of India are under the control of and deployed by the Strategic Forces Command,[50] using a variety of vehicles and launching silos. They currently consist of six different types of ballistic missiles, the Agni-I, the Agni-II, Agni-III, Agni-IV, Agni-V, Agni-P , and the Army's variant of the Prithvi missile family – the Prithvi-I. However, the Prithvi missiles are less useful for delivering nuclear weapons because they have a shorter range and must be deployed very close to the India–Pakistan border.[27] Additional variants of the Agni missile series have recently been inducted including the most recent, the Agni-IV[51] and the Agni-V, which is currently being deployed.[52] Agni-VI is also under development, with an estimated range of 10,000–12,000 km and features such as Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) or Maneuverable reentry vehicles (MARVs).[53][54]
Name | Type | Range (km) | Status |
---|---|---|---|
Prithvi-I | Short-range ballistic missile | 150 | Deployed |
Prithvi-II | Short-range ballistic missile | 250–350 | |
Prithvi-III | Short-range ballistic missile | 350–600 | |
Agni-I | Medium-range ballistic missile | 700 | |
Shaurya |
Medium-range ballistic missile | 700–1900 | |
Agni-P | Medium-range ballistic missile | 1,000–2,000 | |
Agni-II | Medium-range ballistic missile | 2,000–3,000 | |
Agni-III | Intermediate-range ballistic missile | 3,500–5,000 | |
Agni-IV | Intermediate-range ballistic missile | 4000 | |
Agni-V | Intercontinental ballistic missile | 7,000–8,000 | |
Agni-VI | Intercontinental ballistic missile | 10,000–12,000 | Under development |
Surya | Intercontinental ballistic missile | ~16,000 | Unconfirmed |
Sea-based ballistic missiles
The Indian Navy has developed two sea-based delivery systems for nuclear weapons, completing Indian ambitions for a nuclear triad, which may have been deployed in 2015.[55][56]
The first is a submarine-launched system consisting of at least four 6,000-tonne (
The second is a ship-launched system based around the short-range ship-launched Dhanush ballistic missile (a variant of the
Name | Type | Range (km) | Status |
---|---|---|---|
Dhanush |
Short-range ballistic missile | 350 | Operational[67] |
Sagarika (K-15) | Submarine-launched ballistic missile | 700 | |
K-4 |
Submarine-launched ballistic missile | 3,500 | |
K-5 | Submarine-launched ballistic missile | 5,000 | Under Development[68] |
K-6 | Submarine-launched ballistic missile | 6,000 |
Thermonuclear weapons
On 11 May 1998, India announced that it had detonated a thermonuclear bomb in its
The yield of India's hydrogen bomb test remains highly debatable among the Indian science community and international scholars.[74] The question of politicisation and disputes between Indian scientists further complicated the matter.[75]
In an interview in August 2009, the director for the 1998 test site preparations, K. Santhanam claimed that the yield of the thermonuclear explosion was lower than expected and that India should therefore not rush into signing the CTBT. Other Indian scientists involved in the test have disputed K. Santhanam's claim,[76] arguing that Santhanam's claims are unscientific.[70] British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that the magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes of TNT (250 TJ), consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes of TNT (230 TJ).[77] U.S. seismologist Jack Evernden has argued that for correct estimation of yields, one should 'account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites.[73]
However, India officially maintains that it can build thermonuclear weapons of various yields up to around 200 kt (840 TJ) based on the Shakti-1 thermonuclear test.[73][78]
International response
India is not a signatory to either the NPT or the
In August 2008, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) approved a safeguards agreement with India under which the former will gradually gain access to India's civilian nuclear reactors.[86] In September 2008, the Nuclear Suppliers Group granted India a waiver to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.[87] The implementation of this waiver makes India the only known country with nuclear weapons which is not a party to the NPT but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.[88][89]
Since the implementation of the NSG waiver, India has signed nuclear deals with several countries including France,[90] United States,[91] Mongolia, Namibia,[92] Kazakhstan[93] and Australia[94] while the framework for similar deals with Canada and the United Kingdom are also being prepared.[95][96][89]
Domestic legislation
India has several laws in whole or partial measure that deal with the regulation of weapons of mass destruction.[97] They include the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) Act of 2005.[97] In April 2022 a bill was tabled to amend the 2005 act to include the financing of proliferation.[98]
See also
- Weapons of mass destruction
- India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement
- Weapons of mass destruction
- Nuclear Command Authority (India)
- Defense-related
- Indian military satellites
- Guided missiles of India
- Indian Armed Forces
- Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
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Further reading
- Abraham, Itty (1998). The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb. Science, Secrecy, and the Postcolonial State. London and New York: ISBN 9788125016151.
- Perkovich, George (1999). India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23210-5.
- Pahuja, Om Parkash (2001). India: A Nuclear Weapon State. New Delhi: Ocean Books. ISBN 978-81-87100-69-0.
- Pant, Harsh V., Yogesh Joshi (2018). Indian Nuclear Policy. Oxford University Press. online review
- Szalontai, Balázs (2011). The Elephant in the Room: The Soviet Union and India’s Nuclear Program, 1967–1989. Nuclear Proliferation International History Project Working Paper #1. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
- Gurmeet Kanwal (2016). India’s Nuclear Force Structure 2025. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
- Sarkar, Jayita (2022). Ploughshares and Swords: India's Nuclear Program in the Global Cold War. Cornell University Press. [Free Download]
External links
- Indian nuclear weapons program at The Nuclear Weapon Archive
- At Nuclear Files:
- CIA on India's nuclear program
- India's missile testing ranges
- Video interviews taken at the 2008 NPT PrepCom on the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act
- Annotated bibliography for India's nuclear weapons program at the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues.
- Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project, including a collection of primary-source documents on Indian nuclear development.
- The National Security Archive's "Nuclear Vault" features a number of compilations of declassified US government documents related to India's nuclear program.