Indian English

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Speech example

An example of a female speaker from the North Indian state of Uttarakhand (Vandana Shiva).

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Speech example

An example of a female speaker from the Northeast Indian state of Meghalaya (Arundhati Roy).

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Speech example

An example of a female news presenter from the South Indian state of Karnataka.

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Indian English (IE) is a group of

Today, only a few hundred thousand Indians, or less than 0.1% of the total population, speak English as their first language,[7]^[8][9][10] and around 30% of the Indian population can speak English to some extent.^[11]

According to the

India ranks 52 out of 111 countries in the 2022 EF English Proficiency Index published by the EF Education First. The index gives the country a score of 496 indicating "moderate proficiency". India ranks 6th out of 24 Asian countries included in the index.^[16]

As a multilingual country, English is the lingua franca among different regions of India.^[17] Writing for The New York Times, journalist Manu Joseph stated in 2011 that, due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth."^[18] In his book, In Search of Indian English: History, Politics and Indigenisation, Ranjan Kumar Auddy shows that the history of the rise of Indian nationalism and the history of the emergence of Indian English are deeply inter-related.^[19]

Court language

Under the Indian Constitution, English is the language of

The first occurrence of the term Indian English dates from 1696,[23] though the term did not become common until the 19th century. In the colonial era, the most common terms in use were Anglo-Indian English, or simply Anglo-Indian, both dating from 1860. Other less common terms in use were Indo-Anglian (dating from 1897) and Indo-English (1912).^[24] An item of Anglo-Indian English was known as an Anglo-Indianism from 1851.^[24]

In the modern era, a range of colloquial

Features

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2019)

Indian English generally uses the Indian numbering system. Idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary languages and vernaculars have been absorbed into Indian English. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in phonetics, vocabulary, and phraseology among various dialects of Indian English.^{[26][27][28][29]}

Formal written publications in English in India tend to use lakh/crore for Indian currency and Western numbering for foreign currencies like dollars and pounds, although lakh and crore are also used to refer to other large numbers such as population sizes.^[30] These terms are not used by other English-speakers, who have to learn what they mean in order to read Indian English news articles.

History

British India

The English language established a foothold on the

The view of the English language among many Indians has changed over time. It used to be associated primarily with colonialism; it is now primarily associated with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.^[33]

While there is an assumption that English is readily available in India, studies show that its usage is actually restricted to the elite,^[34] because of inadequate education to large parts of the Indian population. The use of outdated teaching methods and the poor grasp of English exhibited by the authors of many guidebooks disadvantage students who rely on these books, giving India only a moderate proficiency in English.^[35]

In addition, many features of Indian English were imported into Bhutan due to the dominance of Indian-style education and teachers in the country after it withdrew from its isolation in the 1960s.^[36][37]

Hinglish and other hybrid languages

The term Hinglish is a

In general, Indian English has fewer peculiarities in its vowel sounds than the consonants, especially as spoken by native speakers of languages like Hindi, the vowel phoneme system having some similarities with that of English. Among the distinctive features of the vowel-sounds employed by some Indian English speakers:

• North Indians, especially a minority of English students and teachers along with some people in various professions like telephone customer service agents, often speak with a
  alveolar tap
  [ɾ] is used for /r/, resulting in water and never as [wɒtaɾ] or [ʋɒʈaɾ] and [nevaɾ] respectively.
  • Features characteristic of North American English, such as rhoticity and r-coloured vowels, have been gaining influence on Indian English in recent years as cultural and economic ties increase between India and the United States.^[41]
• Many North Indians have an
  intonation pattern similar to Hiberno-English
  , which perhaps results from a similar pattern used while speaking Hindi.
• Indian English speakers do not necessarily make a clear distinction between
  cot-caught merger
  , with the target vowel ranging between either option.
• Diphthong /eɪ/ is pronounced as [e]
• Diphthong /oʊ/ is pronounced as [o]
• Diphthong /ɛər/ is pronounced as [ɛ]
• /ɑː/ may be more front [a] or central [ä]
• /ʌ/ can be more mid central [ə] or open-mid [ɜ]^[42]
• /æ/ may be lower [a].
• /ɪ/ may be more central [ɘ], especially before /l/.^[43]
• Most Indians have the trap–bath split of Received Pronunciation, affecting words such as class, staff and last (/klɑːs/, /stɑːf/ and /lɑːst/ respectively). Though the trap-bath split is prevalent in Indian English, it varies greatly. Many younger Indians who read and listen to American English do not have this split. ^{[citation needed]} Similar to Australian English, variability is especially present when the split occurs before nasal clusters in words such as dance, Francis, and answer.^[44]
• Most Indians do not have the hoarse-horse merger.

The following are some variations in Indian English resulting from not distinguishing a few vowels:

• Pronunciation of /ɔː/ ranging from [ɔ] to [ɒ]
• Pronunciation of /æ/ and [ɛ] as [e]
• Pronunciation of /ɒ/ ranging from [ɔ] to [a]^[45]

Consonants

The following are the characteristics of dialect of Indian English most similar to RP:

• The voiceless
  plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ are always unaspirated in Indian English, (aspirated in cultivated form) whereas in RP, General American and most other English accents they are aspirated in word-initial or stressed syllables. Thus "pin" is pronounced [pɪn] in Indian English but [pʰɪn] in most other dialects. In native Indo-Aryan languages, a predominant language family in India, the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated plosives is phonemic, and the English stops are equated with the unaspirated rather than the aspirated phonemes of the local languages.^[46]
  The same is true of the voiceless postalveolar affricate /tʃ/. The local unvoiced aspirated plosives are instead equated with English fricatives, namely /f/ and /θ/.
• The
  retroflex flap
  [ɽ], and the nasal /n/ to a nasalised retroflex flap.
• Most major native languages of India lack the dental fricatives
  voiced dental plosive [d̪], or possibly the aspirated version [d̪ʱ], is substituted for /ð/.^[51]
  For example, "thin" would be realised as [t̪ʰɪn] instead of /θɪn/ for North Indian speakers, whereas it would be pronounced unaspirated in the south.

• The English of Delhi often has
  yod-dropping after coronals, unlike RP.^[44]
• The
  alveolar approximant [ɹ] like in most varieties of English.^[52][53]
• Pronunciations vary between rhotic and non-rhotic; with pronunciations leaning towards native phonology being generally rhotic, and others being non-rhotic.
  • In recent years, rhoticity has been increasing.[54] Generally, American English is seen as having a large influence on the English language in India recently.^[41]
  • Many Indians with rhotic accents prefer to pronounce words with [aʊə] as [aː(r)], such as ⟨flower⟩ as [flaː(r)] and ⟨our⟩ as [aː(r)], as opposed to [flaʊ.ə] and [aʊ.ə] in more non-rhotic varieties. Speakers with rhotic accents, especially some south Indians, may also pronounce word-final /ər/ as /ar/, resulting in water and never as /wɔːtar/ and /nevar/ respectively.
• Most Indian languages do not differentiate between /v/ (
  labiodental approximant [ʋ] for words with either sound, possibly in free variation with [v] and/or [w] depending upon region. Thus, wet and vet are often homophones.^[55]
• South Indians tend to curl the tongue (retroflex accentuation) less for /l/ and /n/.
• Sometimes, Indian speakers interchange /s/ and /z/, especially when plurals are being formed, unlike speakers of other varieties of English, who use [s] for the pluralisation of words ending in a voiceless consonant, [z] for words ending in a voiced consonant or vowel, and [ɨz] for words ending in a sibilant.
• In case of the postalveolar affricates /tʃ/ /dʒ/, native languages like Hindi have corresponding affricates articulated from the palatal region, rather than postalveolar, and they have more of a stop component than fricative; this is reflected in their English.
• GA) are also replaced by VC clusters. e.g., metre, /ˈmiːtər/ → /ˈmiːʈər/.^{[citation needed}
  ]
• Indian English uses clear [l] in all instances like
  ɫ
  ] (velarised-L) in coda and syllabic positions.

The following are variations in Indian English due to language contact with Indian languages:

• Most Indian languages (except
  Konkani) lack the voiced alveolar fricative /z/. A significant portion of Indians thus, even though their native languages do have its nearest equivalent: the unvoiced /s/, often use the voiced palatal affricate (or postalveolar) /dʒ/. This makes words such as ⟨zero⟩ and ⟨rosy⟩ sound as [ˈdʒiːro] and [ˈroːdʒiː] (the latter, especially in the North). This replacement is equally true for Persian and Arabic loanwords into Hindi. The probable reason is the confusion created by the use of the Devanagari grapheme ⟨ज⟩ (for /dʒ/) with a dot beneath it to represent /z/ (as ⟨ज़⟩). A similar thing happens in other Indian languages like Bengali, with the letters for /dʒ/ (except Indian varieties of Nepali where ⟨ज⟩ represents /dz/) usually being used to represent /z/. This is common among people without formal English education. In Telugu
  , /z/ and /dʒ/ are allophones in some cases, so the words such as fridge /fɹɪdʒ/ become /friz/.
• In Assamese, /tʃ/ and /ʃ/ are pronounced as /s/; and /dʒ/ and /ʒ/ are pronounced as /z/. Retroflex and dental consonants are not present and only alveolar consonants are used unlike other Indian languages. Similar to Bengali, /v/ is pronounced as /bʱ/ and /β/ in Assamese. For example; change is pronounced as [sɛɪnz], vote is pronounced as [bʱʊt] and English is pronounced as [iŋlis].^[56]
• Again, in
  Bengalis.^[56]
• Inability to pronounce certain (especially word-initial) consonant clusters by people of rural backgrounds, as with some Spanish-speakers. This is usually dealt with by epenthesis. e.g., ⟨school⟩ /isˈkuːl/.
• Many Indians with lower exposure to English also may pronounce /f/ as an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive [pʰ]. Again in Hindi Devanagari the loaned /f/ from Persian and Arabic is written by putting a dot beneath the grapheme for native [pʰ] ⟨फ⟩: ⟨फ़⟩. This substitution is rarer than that for [z], and in fact in many Hindi /f/ is used by native speakers instead of /pʰ/, or the two are used interchangeably.
• Many speakers of Indian English do not use the voiced postalveolar fricative (/ʒ/). Some Indians use /z/ or /dʒ/ instead, e.g. ⟨treasure⟩ /ˈtrɛzəːr/,^[47] and in some south Indian variants, with /ʃ/ as in ⟨shore⟩, e.g. ⟨treasure⟩ /ˈtrɛʃər/.

Spelling pronunciation

A number of distinctive features of Indian English are due to "

• In words where the digraph ⟨gh⟩ represents a voiced velar plosive (/ɡ/) in other accents, some Indian English speakers supply a murmured version [ɡʱ], for example ⟨ghost⟩ [ɡʱoːst]. No other accent of English admits this voiced aspiration.^[47]
• Similarly, especially with Hindi speakers, the digraph ⟨wh⟩ may be aspirated as [ʋʱ] or [wʱ], resulting in realisations such as ⟨which⟩ [ʋʱɪtʃ], found in no other English accent (although some Scottish accents come close).^[57] This is somewhat similar to the traditional distinction between ⟨wh⟩ and ⟨w⟩ present in English, however, wherein the former is /ʍ/, whilst the latter is /w/.
• In unstressed syllables, which speakers of American English would realise as a schwa, speakers of Indian English would use the spelling vowel, making ⟨sanity⟩ sound as [ˈsæniti] instead of [ˈsænəti]. This trait is also present in other South Asian dialects (Pakistani and Sri Lankan English), and common for many second-language European speakers of English.
• The word "of" is usually pronounced with a /f/ instead of a /v/ as in most other accents.^[51]
• Use of [d] instead of [t] for the "-ed" ending of the past tense after voiceless consonants, for example "developed" may be [ˈdɛʋləpd] instead of RP /dɪˈvɛləpt/.^[47]
• Use of [s] instead of [z] for the ⟨-s⟩ ending of the plural after voiced consonants, for example ⟨dogs⟩ may be [daɡs] instead of [dɒɡz].^[51]
• Pronunciation of ⟨house⟩ as [haʊz] in both the noun and the verb, instead of [haʊs] as a noun and [haʊz] as a verb.
• Silent letters may be pronounced. For example, 'salmon' is usually pronounced with a distinct /l/.

Supra-segmental features

English is a

The Indian numbering system is preferred for digit grouping.^[61] When written in words, or when spoken, numbers less than 100,000 are expressed just as they are in Standard English. Numbers including and beyond 100,000 are expressed in a subset of the Indian numbering system. Thus, the following scale is used:

Larger numbers are generally expressed as multiples of the above (for example, one lakh crores for one

Indian English includes many political, sociological, and administrative terms, such as

Indian English, like some other World Englishes, is notable for its treatment of English mass and count nouns. Words that are treated as mass nouns in native forms of English, such as evidence, equipment, or training, are frequently treated as count nouns in Indian English.^[66]

Some examples of words and phrases unique to, or chiefly used in, standard written Indian English include:

• academics (noun) (also Canadian and U.S. English): Academic pursuits in contrast to technical or practical work.
  • e.g. "For 14 years he immersed himself in academics and was a fine achiever." (The Hindu (Madras), 6 December 1991 27/2)^[67]
• all is well: Nothing to be concerned about, everything is fine. (reference to the famous Indian movie 3 Idiots with a song with this title).
• avail (verb): Take advantage of an opportunity or resource.
• ayye, aiye (interjection) (South India): ew.
• ayyo, aiyo (interjection) (South India): oh no, yikes.
• brinjal (noun): An eggplant/aubergine
• bus stand (noun): A bus station (British English)
• capsicum (noun) (also Australian English): A bell pepper
  • e.g. "He is allergic to capsicum."
• chain-snatching (verb): To snatch a gold chain (or sometimes silver chain) from someone and run away, usually perpetrated by two or more criminals on a
  motorbike/moped/scooter
  .
  • e.g. "Women are avoiding wearing gold chains due to the concerning rise in number of chain-snatching cases in many parts of the city."
• cinema (noun): A
  Movie, film
  .
• cinema hall (noun): A
  movie theatre.^[68]
  • e.g. "Cinema halls in Uttar Pradesh will soon display the newly-unveiled logo for Kumbh Mela, right after the national anthem is played" (The Times of India, 3 January 2018)^[69]
• Hindu–Muslim riots
  .
• desi: South Asian, Indian.
• do the needful: To do that which is necessary or required, with the respectful implication that the other party is trusted to understand what needs doing without being given detailed instructions.
  • e.g. "When asked if the UP government could reduce Value Added Tax (VAT) on petro-products to bring down prices, the CM said that the state government was aware of the situation and will do the needful." (2018 The Pioneer)^[70]
• English-knowing (adjective): Of a person or group of people that uses or speaks English.
  • e.g. "The official and Service atmosphere ... set the tone for almost all
    Indian middle-class life, especially the English-knowing intelligentsia." (Toward Freedom vii. 40, J. Nehru, 1941)^[71]
• even: Added at end of sentence.
  • e.g., "He didn't call even" meaning "He didn't even call" and not "He even didn't call" or "Even he didn't call".
• footpath (noun) (also Australian English, British English, Hiberno-English): a sidewalk (American English).
  • e.g. "Pedestrian trips account for a quarter to a third of all trips in many Indian cities, yet, footpaths are designed as an afterthought to vehicles and commercial establishments." (The Hindu, 29 November 2019)^[72]
• foreign-returned (adjective): Of a person or group of people who has returned home after living abroad for a while^[73]
• freeship (noun): A studentship or scholarship.^[74]
  • e.g. "Two permanent freeships, each tenable for one year and one of which is for the second and the other for the third year class." (The Medical Reporter (Calcutta) 57/1, 1 February 1893)
  • e.g. "Private institutions can only develop if they are allowed to charge reasonable fees, while also providing need based freeships and scholarships for a certain percentage of students." (The Economic Times (Nexis), 12 October 2006)^[75]
• hartal (noun): A strike, protest.
• highway (noun): A
  motorway (British English), freeway
  (American English)
• hotel (noun): A
  café
  .
  • e.g. "A group of four friends had gone to have dinner at a roadside hotel." (Statesman (Calcutta), 10 February 1999 (Midweek section) 4/3)[76]
• is it so: Oh really?
• it will be: This is how much it is (quantifying something)
  • e.g. Q: "How much is this?" A: "It will be two hundred and seventy rupee."
• kindly adjust: Used to acknowledge and apologize for something that causes problems or difficulties and ask people to accept and adapt to the situation, or used to apologize for causing inconvenience.
  • e.g. "The store will be closed this afternoon due to staffing shortages. Kindly adjust."
  • e.g.: When asking someone to move along so you can sit down. "I would like to sit down, sir. Kindly adjust."^[77]
• lady finger/lady's finger (noun): okra
• matrimonial (noun): Advertisements in a newspaper for the purpose of finding a marriageable partner.
  • e.g. "When I have a job I'll have to begin a whole new search for my better half ... Back to the newspaper matrimonials on Sundays." (Statesman (Calcutta), 10 February 1999 (Midweek section) 4/3)^[78]
• na (interjection) (North India): "isn't it?"
  • e.g. "That place is quite far na?"
• office boy: Usually a person employed to do less important and menial jobs in a business office. e.g. Messenger, copier maintenance, Chaiwala, etc. Often resides or spends their working time in a special service space in the office, behind the front desk or in the pantry.
• out of station: used for saying that someone is away.^[79] This phrase has its origins in the posting of army officers to particular "stations" during the days of the East India Company.
• pass(ing) out (phrase): Graduate from school/college or complete a course at an institution.^[80]
  • e.g. "I passed out of college in 2007."^[80]
  • e.g. "I passed out of my school aged 17."
• petrol pump / petrol bunk (used in some parts of south India; noun): A petrol station (British English), gas station (American English)
• prepone (verb): To bring (something) forward to an earlier date or time.^[81]
  • e.g. "The meeting has been preponed due to a change in the schedule."
• pressperson (noun, frequently as a single word): A newspaper journalist, a reporter, a member of the press.
  • e.g. "The
    namaskar' [customary Hindu greeting] and a broad smile." (The Hindu (Nexis), 20 June 2001)^[82]
• ragging (noun): bullying, fagging
• redressal (noun): Redress
  • e.g. "There is an urgent need for setting up an independent authority for redressal of telecom consumer complaints." (Statesman (India) (Nexis), 2 April 1998)
  • e.g. "Where does he go for the redressal of his genuine grievances?" (Sunday Times of India, 15 September 2002 8/4)^[83]
• revert (verb): To report back with information.
  • e.g. "Please revert with the required documentation."
• right: confirmation, I understand you.
• road junction/circle (noun): a crossroad (British English), intersection (American English)
• talaq, talaq, talaq – A form of divorce practiced in the Indian Muslim community for many generations. Triple talaq in India.
• the same: previously mentioned, the above.
  • e.g. "Read out the para and copy down the same."
• tiffin: lunch, snack.
• upgradation (noun): The enhancement or upgrading of status, value or level of something.
  • e.g. "Our Company lays great stress on technical training and knowledge upgradation." (Business India, 8 September 1986 153/1 (advert))^[84]
• votebank: A bloc of voters from a single community or a group of communities who always back a certain candidate or political party for bribes and/or employment favours given by the particular party.