Indian philosophy
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Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the
There are six major (āstika) schools of
The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era.[citation needed] Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and Vedanta survived, but others, like Ajñana, Charvaka and Ājīvika did not.
Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on
Common themes
Indian philosophies share many concepts such as
Hindu traditions
Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the Vedic period, while the various traditions grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions.
Hindu philosophy classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (āstika) or heterodox (nāstika), depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and the theories of brahman and ātman found therein.[2][3] Besides these, the "heterodox" schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas include Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika and Charvaka.[13][14][15]
This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a scholarly construct found in later Indian sources (and in Western sources on Indian thought) and not all of these sources agree on which system should be considered "orthodox".[16][17] As such there are various heresiological systems in Indian philosophy.[4] Some traditions see "orthodox" as a synonym for "theism" and "heterodox" as a synonym for atheism.[18] Other Hindu sources argue that certain systems of Shaiva tantra should be considered heterodox due to its deviations from the Vedic tradition.[19]
One of the most common list of Hindu orthodox schools is the "six philosophies" (ṣaḍ-darśana), which are:[20]
- Sāṃkhya (school of "Enumeration"), a philosophical tradition which regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities: puruṣa (the perceiving consciousness) and prakṛti (perceived reality, including mind, perception, kleshas, and matter) and which describes a soteriology based on this duality, in which purush is discerned and disentangled from the impurities of prakriti. It has included atheistic authors as well as some theistic thinkers, and forms the basis of much of subsequent Indian philosophy.
- Yoga, a school similar to Sāṃkhya (or perhaps even a branch of it) which accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice.
- Nyāya (the "Logic" school), a philosophy which focuses on logic and epistemology. It accepts four kinds of Pramā (valid presentation): (1) perception, (2) inference, (3) comparison or analogy, (4) word or testimony.[21] Nyāya defends a form of direct realism and a theory of substances (dravya).
- Vaiśeṣika (the school of "Characteristics"), closely related to the Nyāya school, this tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance, and on defending a theory of atoms. Unlike Nyāya, they only accept two pramanas: perception and inference.
- Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā (the school of "Prior Investigation" [of the Vedas]), a school which focuses on exegesis of the Vedas, philology and the interpretation of Vedic ritual.
- Upanishads, particularly the soteriological and metaphysical ideas relating to Atman and Brahman.
Sometimes these six are coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mīmāṃsā-Vedānta. Each tradition also included different currents and sub-schools. For example, Vedānta was divided among the sub-schools of
The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools, with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection", according to Chadha 2015.[22] They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.[23]
Hindu philosophers of the orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (pramana) and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology (guṇa), hermeneutics, and soteriology within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations.[24][25][26][27] The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of classical Hinduism.[28][29][30]
All these systems are not the only "orthodox" systems of philosophy, as numerous sub-schools developed throughout the history of Hindu thought. They are however the most well known Hindu philosophical traditions.
In addition to the six systems, the Hindu philosopher Vidyāraṇya (ca. 1374–1380) also includes several further Hindu philosophical systems in his Sarva-darśana-saṃgraha (A Compendium of all the Philosophical Systems):[5]
- Paśupata, a school of Shaivism founded by Nakulisa
- Saiva Siddhantha, a theistic and dualistic school of Shaivism, which is influenced by Samkhya, and expands the Samkhya system further.
- Pratyabhijña (the school of "Recognition"), which defends an idealistic monism and part of the Kashmir Shaivism tradition of Tantric Shaivism
- Pāṇini Darśana, a tradition focusing on Sanskrit linguistics and grammar which also developed the theory of sphoṭavāda under Bhartṛhari, a theory which places speech and sound at the center of its metaphysics.
- Raseśvara, an alchemical school which advocated the use of mercury as a way to attain enlightenment.
Śramaṇic traditions
Several non-Vedic traditions of thought also flourished in ancient India and they developed their own philosophical systems. The
Indian Śramaṇa movements became prominent in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, and even more so during the Mauryan period (c. 322–184 BCE). Jainism and Buddhism were especially influential. These traditions influenced all later forms of Indian philosophy who either adopted some of their ideas or reacted against them.[33]
Ajñana philosophy
Ajñana was one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. Their ideas are recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.
Jain philosophy
Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions.[37]
Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world (Saṃsāra) is full of hiṃsā (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in attainment of Ratnatraya, that are Samyak Darshan (right perception), Samyak Gnana (right knowledge) and Samyak Chàritra (right conduct) which are the key requisites to attain liberation.[38]
Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy refers to several traditions which can be traced back to the teachings of
Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts, however it is now difficult to identify and describe these influences.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in
Schools of thought
The main traditions of Buddhist philosophy in India (from 300 BCE to 1000 CE) can be divided into Mahayana schools and non-Mahayana schools (sometimes called Śrāvakayāna schools, Nikaya Buddhism, "Mainstream" Buddhism or Hinayana, "inferior" or "lesser" vehicle, a term used only in Mahayana to refer to non-Mahayana traditions).[52] The Mahayana schools accepted the Mahayana sutras and studied the works of Mahayana philosophers like Nagarjuna. The non-Mahayana schools drew their philosophical doctrines from the Tripitaka and on the Abhidharma treatises.
Śrāvakayāna schools (non-Mahayana):
- The Mahāsāṃghika ("Great Community") tradition (which included numerous sub-schools, all are now extinct). A key doctrine of this tradition was the supramundane and transcendent nature of the Buddha (lokottaravada).
- The schools of the Sthavira ("Elders") tradition:
- Mahāvibhāṣa). They were known for their defense of the doctrine of "sarvāstitva" (all exists), which is a form of eternalism regarding the philosophy of time. They also supported direct realism and a theory of substances (svabhāva).
- direct realism and their realist theory of nirvana.
- Pudgalavāda ("Personalists"), which were known for their controversial theory of the "person" (pudgala) which is what undergoes rebirth and attain awakening. They are now extinct.
- Kathavatthu. They rejected the views of the Pudgalavāda and of the Vaibhāṣikaamong others.
Mahāyāna traditions:
The Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") movement (c. 1st century BCE onwards) included new ideas and scriptures (Mahayana sutras). These philosophical traditions differ significantly from other schools of Buddhism, and include metaphysical doctrines which are not accepted by the other Buddhist traditions. Mahayana thought focuses on the universal altruistic ideal of the bodhisattva, a being who is on the path to Buddhahood for the sake of all living beings. It also defends the doctrine that there are limitless number of Buddhas throughout limitless numbers of universes. These Indian traditions are the main source of modern Tibetan Buddhism and of modern East Asian Buddhism.
The main Indian Mahayana schools of philosophy are:
- Madhyamaka ("Middle way" or "Centrism") founded by Nagarjuna. Also known as Śūnyavāda (the emptiness doctrine) and Niḥsvabhāvavāda (the no svabhāva doctrine), this tradition focuses on the idea that all phenomena are empty of any essence or substance (svabhāva).
- Yogācāra ("Yoga-praxis"), an idealistic school which held that only consciousness exists, and thus was also known as Vijñānavāda (the doctrine of consciousness).
- The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition is an influential school of thought which focused on epistemology, or pramāṇa ('means of knowledge'). They generally followed the doctrine of Vijñānavāda.
- Some scholars see the Tathāgatagarbha ("Buddha womb/source") or "buddha-nature" texts as constituting a third "school" of Indian Mahāyāna thought.[53]
- Vajrayāna (also known as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism) is often placed in a separate category due to its unique tantric theories and practices.
Many of these philosophies were brought to other regions, like Central Asia and China. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the
Ājīvika philosophy
The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism.[57] Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.[58]
Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.[59] The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.[59][60] Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy.[61] Ājīvikas were atheists[62] and rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.[63][64]
Charvaka philosophy
Charvaka (
The etymology of
One of the widely studied principles of Charvaka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths.[79][80] In other words, the Charvaka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.[81]
Comparison of Indian philosophies
The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox Indian philosophy and its six schools of Hindu philosophy. The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul,[42][47][48][49][82] from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.[83]
Ājīvika | Early Buddhism | Mahayana Buddhism | Charvaka | Jainism | Hindu "orthodox" philosophy | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Karma | Denies[61][84] | Affirms, but not everything is caused by karma.[83][85] Karma is only one of the constraints. (Niyama) | Affirms | Denies[83] | Affirms[83] | Affirms |
Samsara , Rebirth |
Affirms | Affirms[86] | Affirms | Denies[87] | Affirms[83] | Some school affirm, some not[88] |
Ascetic life | Affirms | Affirms, but rejects extreme asceticism in favor of a more moderated version, the "Middle Way".[89] | Affirms middle way | Denies[83] | Affirms | Affirms as Sannyasa[90] |
Rituals, Bhakti | Affirms | Affirms, optional[91] (Pali: Bhatti) |
Affirms (Mahayana rites) | Denies | Affirms, optional[92] | Theistic school: Affirms, optional[93] Others: Deny[94][95][96][97][98] |
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism | Affirms | Acts of violence which are purposeful have karmic consequences. Buddhism does not explicitly prohibit ordinary people (lay people) from eating meat[99] However, goods that contribute to or are a result of violence should not be traded.[100] | Affirmed in numerous Mahayana sutras | Strongest proponent of non-violence; Vegetarianism to avoid violence against animals[101] |
Affirms as highest virtue, but Just War affirmed Vegetarianism encouraged, but choice left to the Hindu[102][103] | |
Free will | Denies[60] | Buddhists believe in neither absolute free will, nor determinism.[104] It preaches a middle doctrine of dependent arising - pratītyasamutpāda. | Will is a dependent arising | Affirms | Affirms | Affirms[105][106] |
Maya |
Affirms[107] | Affirms (prapañca)[108] |
Affirms | Denies | Affirms | Affirms[109][110] |
Atman (Soul, Self) |
Affirms | Denies[42][47][48][49][82] | An atmavada is taught in Buddha-nature sources, but it is rejected in other Mahayana sources | Denies[111] | Affirms[112] | Affirms[42] |
Creator god | Denies | Denies[113] | Denies | Denies | Denies | Theistic schools: Affirm[114] Others: Deny[115][116] |
Epistemology (Pramana) |
Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda |
Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa[27][117] |
Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa |
Pratyakṣa[78] | Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda[27] |
Various, Vaisheshika (two) to Vedanta (six):[27][26] Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation), Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof), Śabda (Reliable testimony) |
Epistemic authority | Denies: Vedas | Affirms: Tripitaka[118] Denies: Vedas |
Affirms: Tripitaka, Mahayana sutras | Denies: Vedas | Affirms: Jain Agamas Denies: Vedas |
Affirm: |
Salvation (Soteriology) |
Samsdrasuddhi[121] | Nirvana[122] | Buddhahood | Denies | Siddha,[123] | Moksha, Nirvana, Kaivalya Advaita, Yoga, others: Jivanmukti[124] Dvaita, theistic: Videhamukti |
Metaphysics (Ultimate Reality) |
The certain metaphysical questions as unhelpful and indeterminate Avyakta, which he recommends should be set aside. The development of systematic metaphysics arose after the Buddha's death with the rise of the Abhidharma traditions.[125]
|
Anti-foundationalism (Madhyamaka), Idealism (Yogacara) | Material elements | Anekāntavāda[126] |
Brahman[127][128][129] |
Political philosophy
The
The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of
Integral humanism was a set of concepts drafted by Upadhyaya as political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh.
Upadhyaya considered that it was of utmost importance for India to develop an indigenous economic model with a human being at center stage. This approach made this concept different from
Influence
In appreciation of subtlety and truth of the Indian philosophy,
See also
- Affectionism
- Ancient Indian philosophy
- Hindu philosophy
- M. Hiriyanna
- Indian art
- Indian logic
- Indian psychology
- Svayam bhagavan
- Trikaranasuddhi
Notes
- ^ "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school."[71]
- ^ Freschi 2012: The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.[119] Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
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- ISBN 978-0-19-936008-6. Archivedfrom the original on 30 January 2017.
- ISBN 0-415-26605-X. Archivedfrom the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
- Flint, Robert (1899). Anti-theistic theories. London: William Blackwood. OCLC 181827864.
- Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
- Freschi, Elisa (2012). Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-22260-1.
- Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5.
- Jacobsen, Knut A., ed. (2008). Theory and Practice of Yoga : Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120832329.
- Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2001). Collected papers on Buddhist studies. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 9788120817760.
- Kamal, M. Mostafa (1998). "The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy". Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies. 46 (2): 1048–1045. ISSN 1884-0051.
- Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010). ISBN 978-0-231-14987-7.
- Perrett, Roy W. (1984). "The Problem of Induction in Indian Philosophy". JSTOR 1398916.
- Perrett, Roy W., ed. (2000). Indian Philosophy : A Collection of Readings, Volume 3: Metaphysics. Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-3608-2.
- Perrett, Roy W., ed. (2000). Indian Philosophy : A Collection of Readings, Volume 4: Philosophy of Religion. Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2.
- ISBN 978-8120803107.
- Quack, Johannes (2011). Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-981261-5.
- ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
- Raman, Varadaraja V. (2012). "Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections". Zygon. 47 (3): 549–574. .
- Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahiṃsā : non-violence in Indian tradition. London: Rider. ISBN 0-09-123340-2.
- Tiwari, Kedar Nath (1998). Classical Indian Ethical Thought. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120816077.
- ISBN 978-0-19-887839-1.
Further reading
- Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (4th Rev. and Enlarged ed.). Delhi: ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
- Balcerowicz, Piotr (2015). Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 368. ISBN 9781317538530.
- Chattopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. 15-volum + parts Set. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
- Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922–1955). A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1–5. London: Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1 | Vol. 2 | Vol. 3 | Vol. 4 | Vol. 5.
- Gandhi, M. K. (1961). Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha). New York: Schocken Books.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1304-5.
- Jain, Dulichand (1998). Thus Spake Lord Mahavir. Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7120-825-8.
- Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
- Radhakrishnan, S. (1929). Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd ed.). London: George Allen and Unwin.
- Stevenson, Leslie (2004). Ten theories of human nature. Oxford University Press. 4th edition.
External links
- Surendranath Dasgupta. A History of Indian Philosophy | HTML (vol. 1) | (vol. 2) | (vol. 3) | (vol. 4) | (vol. 5), ebook at Wisdomlib.org
- Surendranath Dasgupta. Indian Idealism at archive.org
- A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of University College, London: London Philosophy Study Guide – Indian Philosophy
- Articles at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Indian Psychology Institute The application of Indian Philosophy to contemporary issues in Psychology
- The Essentials of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna at archive.org
- Outlines of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna at archive.org
- Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) at archive.org
- History of Philosophy – Eastern and Western Edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) at archive.org
- Indian Schools of Philosophy and Theology (Jiva Institute)