Indian rhinoceros
Indian rhinoceros Temporal range:
| |
---|---|
An Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Perissodactyla |
Family: | Rhinocerotidae |
Genus: | Rhinoceros |
Species: | R. unicornis
|
Binomial name | |
Rhinoceros unicornis | |
Indian rhinoceros historical range |
The Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), also known as the greater one-horned rhinoceros, great Indian rhinoceros, or Indian rhino for short, is a rhinoceros species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is the second largest extant species of rhinoceros, with adult males weighing 2.2 tonnes and adult females 1.6 tonnes. The skin is thick and is grey-brown in colour with pinkish skin folds. They have a single horn on their snout that grows to a maximum of 57.2 cm (22.5 in). Their upper legs and shoulders are covered in wart-like bumps. They are nearly hairless, aside from the eyelashes, ear fringes and tail brush.
The Indian rhinoceros is a largely
It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, as populations are fragmented and restricted to less than 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi). As of August 2018, the global population was estimated to comprise 3,588 individuals. Indian rhinos once ranged throughout the entire stretch of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but excessive hunting and agricultural development reduced its range drastically to 11 sites in northern India and southern Nepal. In the early 1990s, between 1,870 and 1,895 Indian rhinos were estimated to have been alive. Since then, numbers have increased due to conservation measures taken by the government. However, poaching remains a continuous threat.
Taxonomy
Rhinoceros unicornis was the
The Indian rhinoceros is a single
- R. indicus by Cuvier, 1817
- R. asiaticus by Blumenbach, 1830
- R. stenocephalus by Gray, 1867
- R. jamrachi by Sclater, 1876
- R. bengalensis by Kourist, 1970[4]
Etymology
The
Evolution
Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other
The Indian and Javan rhinoceroses, the only members of the genus Rhinoceros, first appear in the fossil record in Asia during the Early Pleistocene. The Indian rhinoceros is known from Early Pleistocene localities in Java, South China, India and Pakistan.[12] Molecular estimates suggest the species may have diverged much earlier, around 11.7 million years ago.[9][13] Although belonging to the type genus, the Indian and Javan rhinoceroses are not believed to be closely related to other rhino species. Different studies have hypothesised that they may be closely related to the extinct Gaindatherium or Punjabitherium. A detailed cladistic analysis of the Rhinocerotidae placed Rhinoceros and the extinct Punjabitherium in a clade with Dicerorhinus, the Sumatran rhinoceros. Other studies have suggested the Sumatran rhinoceros is more closely related to the two African species.[14] The Sumatran rhino may have diverged from the other Asian rhinos as long ago as 15 million years.[10][15]
A cladogram showing the relationships of recent and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros species (minus Stephanorhinus hemitoechus) based on whole nuclear genomes, after Liu et al., 2021:[16]
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Characteristics
Indian rhinos have a thick grey-brown skin with pinkish skin folds and one
The Indian rhino's single horn is present in both bulls and cows, but not on newborn calves. The horn is pure keratin, like human fingernails, and starts to show after about six years. In most adults, the horn reaches a length of about 25 cm (9.8 in), but has been recorded up to 57.2 cm (22.5 in) in length and 3.051 kg (6.73 lb) in weight.[15][11]
Among terrestrial land mammals native to Asia, Indian rhinos are second in size only to the Asian elephant.[17] They are also the second-largest living rhinoceros, behind only the white rhinoceros. Bulls have a head and body length of 368–380 cm (12.07–12.47 ft) with a shoulder height of 163–193 cm (5.35–6.33 ft), while cows have a head and body length of 310–340 cm (10.2–11.2 ft) and a shoulder height of 147–173 cm (4.82–5.68 ft).[18][11] The bull, averaging about 2.07–2.2 tonnes is heavier than the cow, at an average of about 1.6 tonnes.[18]
The rich presence of blood vessels underneath the tissues in folds gives them the pinkish colour. The folds in the skin increase the surface area and help in regulating the body temperature.
The largest individuals reportedly weigh up to 4 tonnes.[20]
Distribution and habitat
Indian rhinos once ranged across the entire northern part of the
The species was present in northern Bihar and Oudh at least until 1770 as indicated in maps produced by Colonel Gentil.[23] On the former abundance of the species, Thomas C. Jerdon wrote in 1867:[24]
This huge rhinoceros is found in the Terai at the foot of the Himalayas, from Bhutan to Nepal. It is more common in the eastern portion of the Terai than the west, and is most abundant in Assam and the Bhutan Dooars. I have heard from sportsmen of its occurrence as far west as Rohilcund, but it is certainly rare there now, and indeed along the greater part of the Nepal Terai; ... Jelpigoree, a small military station near the Teesta River, was a favourite locality whence to hunt the Rhinoceros and it was from that station Captain Fortescue ... got his skulls, which were ... the first that Mr. Blyth had seen of this species, ...
Today, its range has further shrunk to a few pockets in southern Nepal, northern West Bengal, and the Brahmaputra Valley. Its habitat is surrounded by human-dominated landscapes, so that in many areas, it occurs in cultivated areas, pastures, and secondary forests. In the 1980s, Indian rhinos were frequently seen in the narrow plain area of Manas River and Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.[22]
Populations
In 2022, the total Indian rhinoceros population was estimated to be 4014 individuals, up from 2,577 in 2006. Among them 3262 are in India and the remaining 752 are in Nepal and Bhutan. There is no permanent rhino population in Bhutan, but small rhino populations are occasionally known to cross from the Manas National Park or Buxa Tiger Reserve in India.[25]
In India, there are around 2,885 individuals in Assam, including 2,613 in Kaziranga National Park, 125 in Orang National Park, 107 in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary and 40 in Manas National Park. West Bengal has a population of 339 individuals, including 287 in Jaldapara National Park and 52 in Gorumara National Park. Only 38 individuals are found in Dudhwa National Park, in Uttar Pradesh.[26][27]
By 2014, the population in Assam increased to 2,544 Indian rhinos, an increase of 27% since 2006, although more than 150 individuals were killed by poachers during these years.[28] The population in Kaziranga National Park was estimated at 2,048 individuals in 2009.[29] By 2009, the population in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary had increased to 84 individuals in an area of 38.80 km2 (14.98 sq mi).[30]
In 2015, Nepal had 645 Indian rhinos living in
The Indian rhino population, which once numbered as low as 100 individuals in the early 1900s, has increased to more than 3,700 in the year 2021 as per The International Rhino Foundation.[32]
Ecology and behaviour
Bulls are usually solitary. Groups consist of cows with calves, or of up to six subadults. Such groups congregate at wallows and grazing areas. They are foremost active in early mornings, late afternoons and at night, but rest during hot days.[11]
They bathe regularly. The folds in their skin trap water and hold it even when they exit wallows.[19] They are excellent swimmers and can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h (34 mph) for short periods. They have excellent senses of hearing and smell, but relatively poor eyesight. Over 10 distinct vocalisations have been recorded. Males have home ranges of around 2 to 8 km2 (0.77 to 3.09 sq mi) that overlap each other. Dominant males tolerate other males passing through their territories except when they are in mating season, when dangerous fights break out.[33] Indian rhinos have few natural enemies, except for tigers, which sometimes kill unguarded calves, but adult rhinos are less vulnerable due to their size.
Diet
Indian rhinos are grazers. Their diet consists almost entirely of grasses (such as Arundo donax, Bambusa tulda, Cynodon dactylon, and Oryza sativa), but they also eat leaves, twigs and branches of shrubs and trees (such as Lagerstroemia indica), flowers, fruits (such as Ficus religiosa), and submerged and floating aquatic plants.[37] They feed in the mornings and evenings. They use their semi-prehensile lips to grasp grass stems, bend the stem down, bite off the top, and then eat the grass. They tackle very tall grasses or saplings by walking over the plant, with legs on both sides and using the weight of their bodies to push the end of the plant down to the level of the mouth. Mothers also use this technique to make food edible for their calves. They drink for a minute or two at a time, often imbibing water filled with rhinoceros urine.[11]
Social life
Indian rhinos form a variety of social groupings. Bulls are generally solitary, except for mating and fighting. Cows are largely solitary when they are without calves.
Indian rhinos make a wide variety of vocalisations. At least 10 distinct vocalisations have been identified: snorting, honking, bleating, roaring, squeak-panting, moo-grunting, shrieking, groaning, rumbling and humphing. In addition to noises, the Indian rhino uses
In aggregations, Indian rhinos are often friendly. They will often greet each other by waving or bobbing their heads, mounting flanks, nuzzling noses, or licking. Indian rhinos will playfully spar, run around, and play with twigs in their mouths. Adult bulls are the primary instigators in fights. Fights between dominant bulls are the most common cause of rhino mortality, and bulls are also very aggressive toward cows during courtship. Bulls chase cows over long distances and even attack them face-to-face. Indian rhinos use their horns for fighting, albeit less frequently than African rhinos that largely use the incisors of the lower jaw to inflict wounds.[15]
Reproduction
Captive bulls breed at five years of age, but wild bulls attain dominance much later when they are larger. In one five-year field study, only one Indian rhino estimated to be younger than 15 years mated successfully. Captive cows breed as young as four years of age, but in the wild, they usually start breeding only when six years old, which likely indicates they need to be large enough to avoid being killed by aggressive bulls.
Threats
Serious declines in quality of habitat have occurred in some areas, due to severe invasion by
The Indian rhino species is inherently at risk because over 70% of its population occurs at a single site, Kaziranga National Park. Any catastrophic event such as disease, civil disorder, poaching, or habitat loss would have a devastating impact on the Indian rhino's status. However, small population of rhinos may be prone to inbreeding depression.[1]
Poaching
Sport hunting became common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was the main cause for the decline of Indian rhinoceros populations. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the mid-19th century claim that some British military officers shot more than 200 rhinos in Assam alone. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga National Park had decreased to around 12 individuals.
In 1950, in Nepal the Chitwan's forest and grasslands extended over more than 2,600 km2 (1,000 sq mi) and were home to about 800 rhinos. When poor farmers from the mid-hills moved to the Chitwan Valley in search of arable land, the area was subsequently opened for settlement, and poaching of wildlife became rampant. The Chitwan population has repeatedly been jeopardised by poaching; in 2002 alone, poachers killed 37 animals to saw off and sell their valuable horns.[45]
Conservation
The Indian rhinoceros is listed as
In 1957, the country's first conservation law ensured the protection of rhinos and their
Reintroduction to new areas
Indian rhinos have been reintroduced to areas where they had previously inhabited but became extinct. These efforts have produced mixed results, mainly due to lack of proper planning and management, sustained effort, adequate security of the introduced animals.[48]
In 1984, five Indian rhinos were relocated to Dudhwa National Park—four from the fields outside the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary and one from Goalpara.[22] This has born results and the population has increased to 21 rhinos by 2006.[26] In early 1980s, Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam had more than 70 Indian rhinos which were all killed by poachers. In 2016, two Indian rhinos, a mother and her daughter, were reintroduced to the sanctuary from Kaziranga National Park as part of the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV 2020) program, but both animals died within months due to natural causes.[44]
Indian rhinos were once found as far west as the
In captivity
Indian rhinos were initially difficult to breed in captivity. In the second half of the 20th century, zoos became adept at breeding Indian rhinoceros. By 1983, nearly 40 babies had been born in captivity.
The first recorded captive birth of an Indian rhinoceros was in
Cultural significance
The Indian rhinoceros is one of the motifs on the
The
Europe
In the 3rd century,
In 1741–1758, Clara the rhinoceros (c. 1738 – 14 April 1758) was a female Indian rhinoceros who became famous during 17 years of touring Europe in the mid-18th century. She arrived in Europe in Rotterdam in 1741, becoming the fifth living rhinoceros to be seen in Europe in modern times since Dürer's rhinoceros in 1515. After tours through towns in the Dutch Republic, the Holy Roman Empire, Switzerland, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, France, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, Bohemia and Denmark, she died in Lambeth, England. In 1739, she was drawn and engraved by two English artists. It was then brought to Amsterdam, where Jan Wandelaar made two engravings that were published in 1747. In the subsequent years, the rhinoceros was exhibited in several European cities. In 1748, Johann Elias Ridinger made an etching of it in Augsburg, and Petrus Camper modelled it in clay in Leiden. In 1749, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon drew it in Paris. In 1751, Pietro Longhi painted it in Venice.[57]
See also
- Unicorn, mythological character
- The Soul of the Rhino
References
- ^ . Retrieved 16 January 2022.}
- ^ Linnæus, C. (1758). "Rhinoceros unicornis". Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Holmiae: Salvius. p. 56.
- ^ Srinivasulu, C., Srinivasulu, B. (2012). "Chapter 3: Checklist of South Asian Mammals" Archived 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine in: South Asian Mammals: Their Diversity, Distribution, and Status. Springer, New York, Heidelberg, London.
- OCLC 62265494.
- ^ "Definition of RHINOCEROS". merriam-webster.com. 4 February 2024. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1940). "ῥίς". A Greek-English Lexicon (Revised and augmented ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1940). "κέρᾳ". A Greek-English Lexicon (Revised and augmented ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 8 October 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ISBN 0-517-41425-2.
- ^ PMID 8896369.
- ^ a b Lacombat, F. (2005). "The evolution of the rhinoceros" (PDF). In Fulconis, R. (ed.). Save the Rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6. London: European Association of Zoos and Aquaria. pp. 46–49. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
- ^ S2CID 253915386. Archived from the original(PDF) on 29 June 2017.
- .
- (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
- (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2007.
- ^ ISBN 0-231-08450-1.
- PMID 34433011.
- ISBN 978-0-7858-3646-9. Archivedfrom the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
- ^ ISBN 0198508239.
- ^ a b Attenborough, D. (2014). Attenborough's Natural Curiosities 2. Vol. Armoured Animals. UKTV.
- ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1.
- ^ ISBN 2-8317-0336-0. Archived(PDF) from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ a b c d Choudhury, A. U. (1985). "Distribution of Indian one-horned rhinoceros". Tiger Paper. 12 (2): 25–30. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
- ^ Rookmaaker, K. (2014). "Three rhinos on maps of India drawn in Faizabad in the 18th century". Pachyderm (55): 95–96. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
- ^ Jerdon, T. C. (1867). The Mammals of India: a Natural History of all the animals known to inhabit Continental India. Roorkee: Thomason College Press. pp. 232–235.
- from the original on 26 August 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.
- ^ a b Syangden, B.; Sectionov; Ellis, S.; Williams, A.C.; Strien, N.J.v. & Talukdar, B.K. (2008). Report on the regional meeting for India and Nepal IUCN/SSC Asian Rhino Species Group (AsRSG), March 5–7, 2007 Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India (PDF) (Report). Kaziranga: Asian Rhino Specialist Group. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 September 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ Karmakar, Sumir (22 September 2022). "One-horned rhino population crosses 4,000-mark". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 26 August 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.
- ^ a b Hance, J. (2014). "Despite poaching, Indian rhino population jumps by 27 percent in eight years". Mongabay. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
- ^ Medhi, A. & Saha, A. K. (2014). "Land Cover Change and Rhino Habitat Mapping of Kaziranga National Park, Assam". In Singh, M.; Singh, R. B. & Hassan, M. I. (eds.). Climate Change and Biodiversity. Proceedings of IGU Rohtak Conference. Vol. 1, Part II. Springer Japan. pp. 125–138.
- ^ Sarma, P. K.; Talukdar, B. K.; Sarma, K. & Barua, M. (2009). "Assessment of habitat change and threats to the greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, using multi-temporal satellite data". Pachyderm. 46 (July–December): 18–24. Archived from the original on 10 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ "Nepal achieves 21% increase in rhino numbers". WWF Nepal. World Wildlife Fund. 5 May 2015. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
- ^ "State of the Rhino". International Rhino Foundation. 29 September 2020. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
- ISBN 978-3-96067-014-8. Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
- ^ Service, Tribune News. "Tigers kill rhino in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve". Tribuneindia News Service. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
- S2CID 219043948.
- ^ .
- ^ "Rhinoceros unicornis (Indian rhinoceros)". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on 5 October 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
- S2CID 130636556.
- from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
- from the original on 20 November 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
- ^ Zschokke, Samuel; Studer, Peter; Baur, Bruno (1998). "Past and future breeding of the Indian rhinoceros in captivity". International Zoo News. 45 (5): 261–276.
- ^ Menon, V. (1996). Under siege: Poaching and protection of Greater One-horned Rhinoceroses in India (PDF) (Report). TRAFFIC India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2010.
- ^ "Rhino census in India's Kaziranga park counts 12 more". 31 March 2018. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ a b "Who killed the wandering rhino in Assam?". Mongabay-India. 9 September 2019. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
- ^ a b Adhikari, T. R. (2002). "The curse of success". Habitat Himalaya. 9 (3): 1–4. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
- .
- .
- PMID 33627691.
- ^ Sheikh, K. M.; Molur, S. (2004). Status and Red List of Pakistan's Mammals. Based on the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (PDF). IUCN Pakistan. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ "Es ist ein Junge!". Zoo Basel (in German). Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ^ "Panzernashorngeburt im Zoo Basel". Zoo Basel. 2010. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2011.
- ^ Patton, F. (2011) The Artificial Way Archived 16 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Swara, (April–June 2011): 58–61.
- ^ Miller, M. (2014). "Baby Rhinoceros Makes Her Public Debut at Buffalo Zoo". The Buffalo News. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
- ISBN 9781784919184. Archivedfrom the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- JSTOR 605500.
- JSTOR 3217869.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1841). "Rhinoceros". The Penny Cyclopaedia. Vol. 19. London: Charles Knight & Co. pp. 463–475. Archived from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
External links
- "Rhino Resource Center". Rhino Resource Center.
- "Greater One-Horned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis)". International Rhino Foundation.
- TheBigZoo.com: Greater Indian Rhinoceros
- Indian Rhino page at AnimalInfo.org
- Indian Rhinoceros page at UltimateUngulate.com