Indian rock-cut architecture

Art forms of India
Religions Hindu Sikh Jain Buddhist
Periods Indus Valley Mauryan Indo-Greek Indo-Scythian Greco-Buddhist Kushan Gupta Pandyan Pallava Chola Indo-Islamic Mughal
Techniques Cave paintings Rock-cut architecture Ancient architecture Architecture Sculpture Painting
Locations Bhimbetka Mathura Gandhara Sanchi Bharhut Barabar caves Ajanta Khajuraho
See also Indian history Indian culture Asian art Visual arts portal
v t e

Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world.^[1] Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.^[2][3]

There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship.^[4] The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect, a rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere.^{[citation needed]}

In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it is generally small and dark, without natural light.

Historically, artisans carried forward design elements from wood in their rock-cut temples: skilled craftsmen carved rock to imitate timber texture, grain, and structure. The earliest cave temples include the Bhaja Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedse Caves, the Kanheri Caves, and some of the Ajanta Caves. Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the religious and the commercial. Buddhist missionaries are known to have accompanied traders on the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples, commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades. They were made during the period when maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia.^[6]

Although free-standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated, as in the

Maurya reliefs.

The quasi-perfect walls of the Barabar Caves were dug into the hard rock and polished to a mirror effect circa 250 BCE, date of the inscriptions of Ashoka.^[21]

There is another cave with the structure and polishing qualities of the Barabar caves, but without any inscription. This is the Sitamarhi Cave, 20 km from Rajgir, 10 km south-west of Hisua, also dated of the Maurya empire. It is smaller than the Barabar caves, measuring only 4.91x3.43m, with a ceiling height of 2.01m. The entrance is also trapezoidal, as for the Barabar caves.^[23]

Finally, the

• 
  Entrance of the Gopika cave, Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE.
• 
  Polished interior of Sudama, in the Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE.
• 
  Visvakarma cave entrance, Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE.
• 
  Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, 2nd century BCE.

Artificial caves of Western India

After the Barabar Caves, huge efforts were made at building religious caves in Western India until the 6th century CE. However, the polishing of cave walls was abandoned, never to be revived. Such grandiose caves as Karla Caves (1st century CE) or the Ajanta Caves (5th century CE) do not have any polishing either. This may be due to the fact that Mauryan caves were dedicated and sponsored by the Mauryan Imperial government, allowing for huge resources and efforts to be spent, whereas later caves where essentially the result of donations by commoners, who could not afford as high a level of spending.^[27]

First wave of construction (2nd century BCE–4th century CE)

Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the

• 
  Ezhadippattam, Sittanavasal Cave, 1st century BCE
• 
  Gautamiputra vihara at

  Pandavleni Caves built in the 2nd century CE by the Satavahana dynasty

  .
• 
  Manmodi Caves in Junnar, 2nd century CE.
• 
  Tulja Caves in Junnar.
• 
  Pandavleni Caves

  .

Second wave of cave construction (5th–6th century CE)

The construction of caves would wane after the 2nd century CE, possibly due to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the associated intense architectural and artistic production in Gandhara and Amaravati.^[20] The building of rock-cut caves would revive briefly in the 6th century CE, with the magnificent achievements of Ajanta and Ellora, before finally subsiding as Hinduism replaced Buddhism in the sub-continent, and stand-alone temples became more prevalent.^[20][22]

The

• 
  The

  rock-cut

  Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.
• 
  Some of the 29 Ajanta Caves
• 
  A monastery, or

  vihara, with its square hall surrounded by monks' cells. Ajanta Caves

  , no. 4.
• 
  Neminath at a Jain Cave

  at Ellora

Rock-cut architecture also developed with the apparition of stepwells in India, dating from 200 to 400 CE.^[35] Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place.^[35]

Final wave of cave construction (6th–15th century CE)

At Ellora, on the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves, is a Jain cave temple containing a 16-foot (4.9 m) rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanath with an inscription dated 1234/5 CE. This well preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati, is still under active worship. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site.^[36] This was the last excavation at Ellora. The Ankai Fort caves are thought to be from the same period.

The final wave of Indian rock-cut cave construction occurred at Gwalior with five clusters of rock-cut monuments surrounding the

South-West Group: Now termed Trishalagiri.^[37] The group is the first one encountered when driving to the Urvai Gate, just outside the fortifications. There are the oldest Jain monuments in Gwalior from the post-Gupta period. Archaeologist L.B. Singh dates them to 6th to 8th cent AD.^[38]

South-East Group (Popularly referred to as Ek Patthar Ki Bawadi group or "

Babur, who visited Gwalior in AD 1527, ordered the Gwalior statues to be destroyed.^[39] However, only the faces of many of colossal Jain images were destroyed, some of them were later repaired by the local Jains.

• 
  Jain statues, Siddhachal Caves
• 
  Jain Tirthankar statue,

  Gopachal
• 
  Image of

  Samanar Malai

  , 9th century
• 
  Tirumalai

  cave temple
• 
  Kalugumalai Jain Beds

Monolithic rock-cut temples

• 
  Varaha Cave Temple 7th century
• 
  Jain cave 30 at Ellora
• 
  Pancha Rathas monolith rock-cut temples, late 7th century

The

There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures, especially Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from the 5th century CE.[44] Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century.

The Descent of the Ganges, also known as Arjuna's Penance, at Mamallapuram, is one of the largest rock reliefs in Asia and features in several Hindu myths.

Stepwells

The stepwell is a large hole in the ground with steps at one or more sides. They are used in India to collect and conserve water from the

• 
  Jain Badami cave
• 
  Entrance of Rockcut cave temple (Similar style as Barabar Caves) at Guntupalle, Andhra Pradesh
• 
  Advanced beds in early

  viharas at Kanheri Caves
• 
  Rock cut stair leading to Kanheri
• 
  Guntupalle Rockcut Caves, Andhra Pradesh
• 
  Rock cut Buddha statues, Bojjannakonda
• 
  View of large Rock cut stone Stupas at Lingalakonda, Andhra Pradesh

Rock-cut monuments in India

• Aihole has 3 Jaina temple
• Aurangabad Caves
• Badami Cave Temples
• Bagh Caves
• Elephanta Caves
• Jain temples.^[46]
• Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments
  , Gwalior
• Kanheri Caves
• Lenyadri Caves
• Mahabalipuram
• Pancha Rathas
• Kazhuku Malai
• Pandavleni Caves
• Pitalkhora
• Undavalli caves, Andhra Pradesh
• Varaha Cave Temple at Mamallapuram
• Masroor Temple at Kangra
• Bojjannakonda Buddhist Site, Andhra Pradesh
• Guntupalle Buddhist Site, Andhra Pradesh
• Ramatheertham
  , Andhra Pradesh
• Gommateshwara statue, Shravanabelagola

See also

• Cave research in India
• List of Caves in India
• List of rock-cut temples in India
• Rock relief
• New Seven Wonders of the World
• List of archaeological sites sorted by country
• List of colossal sculpture in situ
• List of megalithic sites

Notes