Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Current distribution of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Total population
Approximately 62 million
Regions with significant populations
Mexico	11.8 - 23.2 million[1][2]
United States	3.7 - 9.7 million[3]
Guatemala	6.4 million[4]
Peru	5.9 million[5]
Bolivia	4.1 million[6]
Chile	2.1 million[7]
Colombia	1.9 million[8]
Canada	1.8 million[9]
Brazil	1.7 million[10]
Argentina	1.3 million[11]
Ecuador	1.3 million[12]
Venezuela	724,592[13]
Honduras	601,019[14]
Nicaragua	443,847[15]
Panama	417,559[16]
Paraguay	117,150[17]
Costa Rica	104,143[18]
Guyana	78,492[19]
Uruguay	76,452[20]
Greenland	50,189[21]
Belize	36,507[22]
Suriname	20,344[23]
Puerto Rico	19,839[24]
French Guiana	~19,000[25]
El Salvador	13,310[26]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	3,280[27]
Dominica	2,576[28]
Trinidad and Tobago	1,394[29]
Saint Lucia	951[30]
Antigua and Barbuda	327[31]
Grenada	162[32]
Saint Kitts and Nevis	8[33]
Religion
Mostly Christianity (Catholic and Protestant), along with various Indigenous American religions
Related ethnic groups
Mestizos, Métis, Zambos, Pardos and Indigenous Siberian peoples

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are groups of people native to a specific region that inhabited the Americas before the arrival of European settlers in the 15th century and the ethnic groups who continue to identify themselves with those peoples.^[34]

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are diverse; some Indigenous peoples were historically hunter-gatherers, while others traditionally practice agriculture and aquaculture. In some regions, Indigenous peoples created pre-contact monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, city-states, chiefdoms, states, kingdoms, republics, confederacies and empires.^[35] These societies had varying degrees of knowledge of engineering, architecture, mathematics, astronomy, writing, physics, medicine, planting and irrigation, geology, mining, metallurgy, sculpture and gold smithing.

Many parts of the Americas are still populated by Indigenous peoples; some countries have sizeable populations, especially Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and the United States. At least a thousand different Indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas, where there are also 574 federally recognized tribes in the United States alone. Several of these languages are recognized as official by several governments such as those in Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay and Greenland. Some, such as Quechua, Arawak, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan and Nahuatl, count their speakers in the millions. Whether contemporary Indigenous people live in rural communities or urban ones, many also maintain additional aspects of their cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many Indigenous peoples have also evolved, preserving traditional customs but also adjusting to meet modern needs. Some Indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.^[36] Indigenous peoples from the Americas have also formed diaspora communities outside the Western Hemisphere, namely in former colonial centers in Europe. A notable example is the sizable Greenlandic Inuit community in Denmark.^[37] In the 20th and 21st centuries, Indigenous peoples from Suriname and French Guiana migrated to the Netherlands and France, respectively.^[38][39]

Terminology

Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for India, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies.^{[40][41][42][43][44][45]}

The islands came to be known as the "

The various nations, tribes, and bands of Indigenous peoples of the Americas have differing preferences in terminology for themselves.^[60] While there are regional and generational variations in which umbrella terms are preferred for Indigenous peoples as a whole, in general, most Indigenous peoples prefer to be identified by the name of their specific nation, tribe, or band.^[60][61]

Early settlers often adopted terms that some tribes used for each other, not realizing these were derogatory terms used by enemies. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming has often been based on shared language, region, or historical relationship.

Since the 1970s, the word "Indigenous", which is capitalized when referring to people, has gradually emerged as a favored umbrella term. The capitalization is to acknowledge that Indigenous peoples have cultures and societies that are equal to Europeans, Africans, and Asians.[61]^[66] This has recently been acknowledged in the AP Stylebook.^[67] Some consider it improper to refer to Indigenous people as "Indigenous Americans" or to append any colonial nationality to the term because Indigenous cultures existed before European colonization. Indigenous groups have territorial claims that are different from modern national and international borders, and when labeled as part of a country, their traditional lands are not acknowledged. Some who have written guidelines consider it more appropriate to describe an Indigenous person as "living in" or "of" the Americas, rather than calling them "American"; or simply calling them "Indigenous" without any addition of a colonial state.^[68][69]

History

Peopling of the Americas

This section is an excerpt from Peopling of the Americas.[edit]

The

genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.^[77][78]

While there is general agreement that the Americas were first settled from Asia, the pattern of migration and the place(s) of origin in Eurasia of the peoples who migrated to the Americas remain unclear.

Cordilleran ice sheets.^[81] Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America as far as Chile.^[82] Any archaeological evidence of coastal occupation during the last Ice Age would now have been covered by the sea level rise, up to a hundred metres since then.^[83]

The precise date for the peopling of the Americas is a long-standing open question, and while advances in

DNA analysis have progressively shed more light on the subject, significant questions remain unresolved.^[84][85] The "Clovis first theory" refers to the hypothesis that the Clovis culture represents the earliest human presence in the Americas about 13,000 years ago.^[86] Evidence of pre-Clovis cultures has accumulated and pushed back the possible date of the first peopling of the Americas.^{[87][88][89][90]} Academics generally believe that humans reached North America south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at some point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago.^{[84][87][91][92][93][94]} Some new controversial archaeological evidence suggests the possibility that human arrival in the Americas may have occurred prior to the Last Glacial Maximum more than 20,000 years ago.^{[87][95][96][97][98]}

The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period.^[103] The

According to both Indigenous and European accounts and documents, American civilizations before and at the time of European encounter had achieved great complexity and many accomplishments.^[106] For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan (the historical site of what would become Mexico City), with an estimated population of 200,000 for the city proper and a population of close to five million for the extended empire.^[107] By comparison, the largest European cities in the 16th century were Constantinople and Paris with 300,000 and 200,000 inhabitants respectively.^[108] The population in London, Madrid, and Rome hardly exceeded 50,000 people. In 1523, right around the time of the Spanish conquest, the entire population in the country of England was just under three million people.^[109] This fact speaks to the level of sophistication, agriculture, governmental procedure, and rule of law that existed in Tenochtitlan, needed to govern over such a large citizenry. Indigenous civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics, including the most accurate calendar in the world.^{[citation needed]} The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done with planning and selection, generally by women.

Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and Indigenous creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean".^[110]

European colonization

The European colonization of the Americas fundamentally changed the lives and cultures of the resident Indigenous peoples. Although the exact pre-colonization population count of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Indigenous populations diminished by between 80% and 90% during the first centuries of European colonization. Most scholars estimate a pre-colonization population of around 50 million, with other scholars arguing for an estimate of 100 million. Estimates reach as high as 145 million.^{[111][112][113]}

Epidemics ravaged the Americas with diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which the early colonists brought from Europe. The spread of infectious diseases was slow initially, as most Europeans were not actively or visibly infected, due to inherited immunity from generations of exposure to these diseases in Europe. This changed when the Europeans began the human trafficking of massive numbers of enslaved Western and Central African people to the Americas. Like Indigenous peoples, these African people, newly exposed to European diseases, lacked any inherited resistance to the diseases of Europe. In 1520 an African who had been infected with smallpox had arrived in Yucatán. By 1558, the disease had spread throughout South America and had arrived at the Plata basin.^[114] Colonist violence towards Indigenous peoples accelerated the loss of lives. European colonists perpetrated massacres on the Indigenous peoples and enslaved them.^{[115][116][117]} According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century had a known death toll of about 19,000 Europeans and 30,000 Native Americans, and an estimated total death toll of 45,000 Native Americans.^[118]

The first Indigenous group encountered by Columbus, the 250,000

Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison.^[119] Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries.^{[122][failed verification]} Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent Captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace.

The

Epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Indigenous peoples.^[124][125] After initial contact with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the deaths of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years.^[126] Smallpox killed from one-third to half of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518.^[127][128] By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War of 1529–1532. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture.

Smallpox killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico.^[129][130] Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez on 23 April 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s,^[131] possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán (the heartland of the Aztec Empire) alone, and aiding in the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521.^{[citation needed][114]}

There are many factors as to why Indigenous peoples suffered such immense losses from Afro-Eurasian diseases. Many European diseases, like cow pox, are acquired from domesticated animals that are not indigenous to the Americas. European populations had adapted to these diseases, and built up resistance, over many generations. Many of the European diseases that were brought over to the Americas were diseases, like yellow fever, that were relatively manageable if infected as a child, but were deadly if infected as an adult. Children could often survive the disease, resulting in immunity to the disease for the rest of their lives. But contact with adult populations without this childhood or inherited immunity would result in these diseases proving fatal.^[114][132]

Colonization of the Caribbean led to the destruction of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles. Their culture was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through to the modern populace. In Amazonia, Indigenous societies weathered, and continue to suffer, centuries of colonization and genocide.^[133]

Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 percent of the Indigenous population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans.

The Indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million^[143] to some 300,000 in 1997.^{[dubious – discuss][failed verification][144]}

The Spanish Empire and other Europeans re-introduced horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild.^[145] The reintroduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Indigenous cultures in the Great Plains of North America and in the Gran Chaco and Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.

According to Erin McKenna and Scott L. Pratt, the Indigenous population of the Americas was 145 million in the late 15th and by the late 17th century, had been reduced to 15 million due to

Map of all Indigenous resident schools in Canada, including gravesites. This map can be expanded and interacted with.

  Confirmed discoveries of gravesites (24)

  Investigations underway as of 30 July 2021 (17)

  Investigations that concluded with no discoveries (2)

  Resident schools where no investigations have taken place (100)

Data

Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) is the trauma that can accumulate across generations and develop as a result of the historical ramifications of colonization and is linked to mental and physical health hardships and population decline.^[146] IHT affects many different people in a multitude of ways because the Indigenous community and their history are diverse.

Many studies (such as Whitbeck et al., 2014;^[147] Brockie, 2012; Anastasio et al., 2016;^[148] Clark & Winterowd, 2012;^[149] Tucker et al., 2016)^[150] have evaluated the impact of IHT on health outcomes of Indigenous communities from the United States and Canada. IHT is a difficult term to standardize and measure because of the vast and variable diversity of Indigenous people and their communities. Therefore, it is an arduous task to assign an operational definition and systematically collect data when studying IHT. Many of the studies that incorporate IHT measure it in different ways, making it hard to compile data and review it holistically. This is an important point that provides context for the following studies that attempt to understand the relationship between IHT and potential adverse health impacts.

Some of the methodologies to measure IHT include a "Historical Losses Scale" (HLS), "Historical Losses Associated Symptoms Scale" (HLASS), and residential school ancestry studies.^[146]: 23 HLS uses a survey format that includes "12 kinds of historical losses", such as loss of language and loss of land and asks participants how often they think about those losses.^[146]: 23 The HLASS includes 12 emotional reactions, and asks participants how they feel when they think about these losses.^[146] Lastly, the residential school ancestry studies ask respondents if their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, or "elders from their community" went to a residential school to understand if family or community history in residential schools is associated with negative health outcomes.^[146]: 25 In a comprehensive review of the research literature, Joseph Gone and colleagues^[146] compiled and compared outcomes for studies using these IHT measures relative to the health outcomes of Indigenous peoples. The study defined negative health outcomes to include such concepts as anxiety, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, polysubstance abuse, PTSD, depression, binge eating, anger, and sexual abuse.^[146]

The connection between IHT and health conditions is complicated because of the difficult nature of measuring IHT, the unknown directionality of IHT and health outcomes, and because the term Indigenous people used in the various samples comprises a huge population of individuals with drastically different experiences and histories. That being said some studies such as Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman (2014),^[151] Elias et al. (2012),^[152] and Pearce et al. (2008)^[153] found that Indigenous respondents with a connection to residential schools have more negative health outcomes (e.g., suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and depression) than those who did not have a connection to residential schools. Additionally, Indigenous respondents with higher HLS and HLASS scores had one or more negative health outcomes.^[146] While there are many studies^{[148][154][149][155][150]} that found an association between IHT and adverse health outcomes, scholars continue to suggest that it remains difficult to understand the impact of IHT. IHT needs to be systematically measured. Indigenous people also need to be understood in separate categories based on similar experiences, location, and background as opposed to being categorized as one monolithic group.^[146]

Agriculture

Plants

The South American highlands became a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru,^[157] from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies Indigenous to south-central Chile,^[158] Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago.^[159][160] According to Linda Newson, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet."^[161]

Persistent drought around AD 850 coincided with the collapse of the Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico.^[162]

Indigenous peoples of North America began practicing

In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted that Native Americans managed groves of nut and fruit trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. They would have used prescribed burning further away, in forest and prairie areas.^[164]

Many crops first domesticated by Indigenous peoples are now produced and used globally, most notably

Studies of contemporary Indigenous environmental management—including agro-forestry practices among Itza Maya in Guatemala and hunting and fishing among the Menominee of Wisconsin—suggest that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions.^[166]

Animals

Numerous

The Fuegian dog was a domesticated variation of the culpeo that was raised by several cultures in Tierra del Fuego, like the Selk'nam and the Yahgan.^[168] It was exterminated by Argentine and Chilean settlers, due to supposedly posing as a threat to livestock.^[169]

Several bird species, such as turkeys, Muscovy ducks, Puna ibis, and neotropic cormorants were domesticated by various peoples in Mesoamerica and South America to be used for poultry.

In the Andean region, indigenous peoples domesticated llamas and alpacas to produce fiber and meat. The llama was the only beast of burden in the Americas before European colonization.

Guinea pigs were domesticated from wild cavies to be raised for meat consumption in the Andean region. Guinea pigs are now widely raised in Western society as household pets.

Culture

Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where distinct ethnic groups adopt shared cultural traits, similar technologies, and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting.

Languages

The languages of the North American Indians have been classified into 56 groups or stock tongues, in which the spoken languages of the tribes may be said to center. In connection with speech, reference may be made to gesture language which was highly developed in parts of this area. Of equal interest is the picture writing especially well developed among the Chippewas and Delawares.^[170]

Writing systems

Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, pre-Columbian cultures in

The Zapotec writing system, one of the earliest in the Americas,^[175] was logographic and presumably syllabic.^[175] There are remnants of Zapotec writing in inscriptions on some of the monumental architecture of the period, but so few inscriptions are extant that it is difficult to fully describe the writing system. The oldest example of the Zapotec script, dating from around 600 BCE, is on a monument that was discovered in San José Mogote.^[176]

Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught Indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages using Latin letters, and there are a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught Indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level.^[178] The Spanish crown gathered such documentation, and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of Indigenous peoples from Indigenous viewpoints.^[179]

The

Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of

The music of the Indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America, like that of the North American cultures, tends to be spiritual ceremonies. It traditionally includes a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea shells (used as trumpets), and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE); this jar was decorated with imagery depicting a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas before the introduction of European musical instruments; when played, it produces a sound that mimics a jaguar's growl.^[180]

The solution that was proposed was not to employ but a certain number of indigenous people in the musical service, not to teach them counterpoint, not to allow them to play certain instruments (brass breaths, for example, in Oaxaca, Mexico) and, finally, not to import more instruments so that the indigenous people would not have access to them. The latter was not an obstacle to the musical enjoyment of the natives, who experienced the making of instruments, particularly rubbed strings (violins and double basses) or plucked (third). It is there where we can find the origin of what is now called traditional music whose instruments have their tuning and a typical Western structure.^[187]

Demography

The following table provides estimates for each country in the Americas of the populations of Indigenous people and those with partial Indigenous ancestry, each expressed as a percentage of the overall population. The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given.

Note: these categories are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country. Some figures are based on the results of population-wide genetic surveys while others are based on self-identification or observational estimation.

Indigenous populations of the Americas
as estimated percentage of total country's population

Country	Indigenous	Ref.	Part Indigenous	Ref.	Combined total	Ref.
Greenland	89%		%		89%	[188]
Canada	1.8%		3.6%		5.4%	[189]
Mexico	7%		83%		90%	[190]
United States	1.1%		1.8%		2.9%	[191]
Dominican Republic	%		%		%
Grenada	~0.4%		~0%		~0.4%	[192]
Haiti	%		%		%	[193]
Jamaica	%		%		%
Puerto Rico	0.4%	[194]	84%	[195][196]	84.4%
Saint Kitts and Nevis	%		%		%
Saint Lucia	%		%		%
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	2%		%		%	[197]
Trinidad and Tobago	0.8%		88%		88.8%
Argentina	2.38%	[198]	27%	[199][200]	29.38%
Bolivia	20%		68%		88%	[201]
Brazil	0.4%		12%		12.4%	[202]
Chile	10.9%		%		%	[203]
Colombia	9.5%	[204]	50.3%	[204]	59.8%	[204]
Ecuador	25%		65%		90%	[205]
French Guiana	%		%		%
Guyana	10.5%	[206]	%		%
Paraguay	1.7%		95%		96.7%	[207]
Peru	25.8%		60.2%		86%	[208]
Suriname	2%	[209]	%		%
Uruguay	0%	[210]	2.4%	[211]	2.4%
Venezuela	2.7%		51.6%		54.3%	[212]

History and status by continent and country

North America

Canada

Greenland

The Greenlandic Inuit (

• the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut
• the
  Tunumiit oraasiat
  ("East Greenlandic")
• the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun ("Polar Inuit")

Mexico

The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous Indigenous civilizations before the arrival of the Spanish

.

In contrast to what was the general rule in the rest of North America, the history of the colony of

CDI identifies 62 Indigenous groups in Mexico, each with a unique language.^[242][243]

In the states of

Otomi, and Mixtecs are also present in the central regions of Mexico. In the Northern and Bajio

regions of Mexico, Indigenous people are a small minority.

The

National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States^[246] and recognizes the languages of the Indigenous refugees from Guatemala.^[247] The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual primary and secondary education in some Indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the Indigenous peoples in Mexico, 93% are either native speakers or bilingual second-language speakers of Spanish with only about 62.4% of them (or 5.4% of the country's population) speaking an Indigenous language and about a sixth do not speak Spanish (0.7% of the country's population).^[248]

The Indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the constitution. According to this article, the Indigenous peoples are granted:[249]

• the right to decide the internal forms of social, economic, political, and cultural organization;
• the right to apply their normative systems of regulation as long as human rights and gender equality are respected;
• the right to preserve and enrich their languages and cultures;
• the right to elect representatives before the municipal council in which their territories are located;

amongst other rights.

United States

Main articles: Native Americans in the United States and Alaska Natives

Indigenous peoples in what is now the

Unangax, Alutiiq, Eyak, Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit,^[250] and are collectively called Alaska Natives

. They include Native American peoples as well as Inuit, who are distinct but occupy areas of the region.

The United States has authority over Indigenous

Samoan; politically they are classified as Pacific Islander Americans

. They are geographically, genetically, and culturally distinct from Indigenous peoples of the mainland continents of the Americas.

In the 2020 census 2.9% of the U.S. population claimed to have some degree of Native American heritage. When answering a question about racial background, 3.7 million people identified solely as "American Indian or Alaska Native", while another 5.9 million did so in combination with other races.

lineal descent, or residency. A minority of Native Americans live in land units called Indian reservations

.

Some California and Southwestern tribes, such as the

Penobscot

, and Haudenosaunee, among others, live in both Canada and the United States, whose international border cut through their common cultural territory.

Central America

Belize

Mestizos (mixed European-Indigenous) number about 34% of the population; unmixed

Carib, and Arawak ancestry and make up another 6% of the population.^[252]

Costa Rica

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica

There are over 114,000 inhabitants of Native American origins, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups:

Ngäbe

(Southern Costa Rica long the Panamá border).

These native groups are characterized by their work in wood, like masks, drums, and other artistic figures, as well as fabrics made of cotton.

Their subsistence is based on agriculture, having corn, beans, and plantains as the main crops.^{[citation needed]}

El Salvador

Main articles: Demographics of El Salvador and La Matanza

Estimates for El Salvador's indigenous population vary. The last time a reported census had an Indigenous ethnic option was in 2007, which estimated that 0.23% of the population identified as Indigenous.^[26] Historically, estimates have claimed higher amounts. A 1930 census stated that 5.6% were Indigenous.^[253] By the mid-20th century, there may have been as much as 20% (or 400,000) that would qualify as "Indigenous". Another estimate stated that by the late 1980s, 10% of the population was Indigenous, and another 89% was mestizo (or people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry).^[254]

Much of

fertile land that was good for farming. The Spaniards were disappointed not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador as they had in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but upon learning of the fertile land in El Salvador, they attempted to conquer it. Noted Meso-American Indigenous warriors to rise militarily against the Spanish included Princes Atonal and Atlacatl of the Pipil people in central El Salvador and Princess Antu Silan Ulap of the Lenca people in eastern El Salvador, who saw the Spanish not as gods but as barbaric invaders. After fierce battles, the Pipil successfully fought off the Spanish army led by Pedro de Alvarado along with their Indigenous allies (the Tlaxcalas), sending them back to Guatemala. After many other attacks with an army reinforced with Indigenous allies, the Spanish were able to conquer Cuzcatlan. After further attacks, the Spanish also conquered the Lenca people. Eventually, the Spaniards intermarried with Pipil and Lenca women, resulting in the mestizo population that would make up the vast majority of the Salvadoran people. Today many Pipil and other Indigenous populations live in the many small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and Nahuizalco

.

Guatemala

Main article: Demographics of Guatemala

Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 43.6% of the population considering themselves Indigenous.^[255] The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of a majority of Mayan groups and one non-Mayan group. The Mayan language-speaking portion makes up 29.7% of the population and is distributed into 23 groups namely Q'eqchi' 8.3%, K'iche 7.8%, Mam 4.4%, Kaqchikel 3%, Q'anjob'al 1.2%, Poqomchi' 1%, and Other 4%.^[255] The Non-Mayan group consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people making up 1.8% of the population.^[255] Other sources indicate that between 50% and 60% of the population could be Indigenous because part of the Mestizo population is predominantly Indigenous.

The Mayan tribes cover a vast geographic area throughout Central America and expand beyond Guatemala into other countries. One could find vast groups of Mayan people in Boca Costa, in the Southern portions of Guatemala, as well as the Western Highlands living together in close communities.^[256] Within these communities and outside of them, around 23 Indigenous languages (or Native American Indigenous languages) are spoken as a first language. Of these 23 languages, they only received official recognition by the Government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages.^[255] The Law on National Languages recognizes 23 Indigenous languages including Xinca, enforcing that public and government institutions not only translate but also provide services in said languages.^[257] It would provide services in Cakchiquel, Garifuna, Kekchi, Mam, Quiche, and Xinca.^[258]

The Law of National Languages has been an effort to grant and protect Indigenous people rights not afforded to them previously. Along with the Law of National Languages passed in 2003, in 1996 the Guatemalan Constitutional Court had ratified the ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples.^[259] The ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, is also known as Convention 169. Which is the only International Law regarding Indigenous peoples that Independent countries can adopt. The convention establishes that governments like Guatemala must consult with Indigenous groups before any projects occur on tribal lands.^[260]

Honduras

About 5 percent of the population is of full-blooded Indigenous descent, but as much as 80 percent of Hondurans are

Tolupan.^[261]

Nicaragua

About 5% of the

mythical

.

Another major Indigenous culture in eastern Nicaragua is the

Mayangna (or Sumu) people, counting some 10,000 people.^[262] A smaller Indigenous culture in southeastern Nicaragua is the Rama

.

Other Indigenous groups in Nicaragua are located in the central, northern, and Pacific areas and they are self-identified as follows:

Chorotega, Cacaopera (or Matagalpa), Xiu-Subtiaba, and Nicarao.^[263]

Panama

This section is an excerpt from Indigenous peoples of Panama.[edit]

Indigenous peoples of Panama, or Native Panamanians, are the native peoples of Panama. According to the 2010 census, they make up 12.3% of the overall population of 3.4 million, or just over 418,000 people. The Ngäbe and Buglé comprise half of the indigenous peoples of Panama.^[264]

Many of the Indigenous Peoples live on

Ngäbe-Buglé) exist as equivalent to a province, with two smaller comarcas (Guna de Madugandí and Guna de Wargandí) subordinate to a province and considered equivalent to a corregimiento

(municipality).

South America

Main article: Indigenous peoples of South America

Argentina

See also:

List of indigenous languages in Argentina

In 2005, the Indigenous population living in Argentina (known as pueblos originarios) numbered about 600,329 (1.6% of the total population); this figure includes 457,363 people who self-identified as belonging to an Indigenous ethnic group and 142,966 who identified themselves as first-generation descendants of an Indigenous people.

Pilagá (4,465), the Chané (4,376), and the Chorote (2,613). The Selk'nam

(Ona) people are now virtually extinct in its pure form. The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and Selk'nam nations have become extinct or virtually extinct: the Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century and the Selk'nam language in the 20th century; one Tehuelche language (Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a handful of elderly people.

Bolivia

This article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2012)

Main articles: Demographics of Bolivia and Indigenous peoples in Bolivia

In Bolivia, the 2012 National Census reported that 41% of residents over the age of 15 are of Indigenous origin. Some 3.7% report growing up with an Indigenous mother tongue but do not identify as Indigenous.^[267] When both of these categories are totaled, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's population was recorded as Indigenous in the 2001 Census.^[268]

The 2021 National Census, recognizes 38 cultures, each with its language, as part of a pluri-national state. Some groups, including

CONAMAQ

(the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu), draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking population, resulting in a total of 50 Indigenous peoples native to Bolivia.

The largest Indigenous ethnic groups are

CONAMAQ

(the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu), draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking population, resulting in a total of 50 Indigenous peoples native to Bolivia.

Large numbers of Bolivian highland

ILO Convention 169

and to begin the still-ongoing process of recognizing and giving official titles to Indigenous territories. The 1994 Law of Popular Participation granted "grassroots territorial organizations;" these are recognized by the state and have certain rights to govern local areas.

Some radio and television programs are produced in the Quechua and Aymara languages. The constitutional reform in 1997 recognized Bolivia as a multi-lingual, pluri-ethnic society and introduced education reform. In 2005, for the first time in the country's history, an Indigenous Aymara, Evo Morales, was elected as president.

Morales began work on his "Indigenous autonomy" policy, which he launched in the eastern lowlands department on 3 August 2009. Bolivia was the first nation in the history of South America to affirm the right of Indigenous people to self-government.^[272] Speaking in Santa Cruz Department, the President called it "a historic day for the peasant and Indigenous movement", saying that, though he might make errors, he would "never betray the fight started by our ancestors and the fight of the Bolivian people".^[272] A vote on further autonomy for jurisdictions took place in December 2009, at the same time as general elections to office. The issue divided the country.^[273]

At that time, Indigenous peoples voted overwhelmingly for more autonomy: five departments that had not already done so voted for it;^[274][275] as did Gran Chaco Province in Taríja, for regional autonomy;^[276] and 11 of 12 municipalities that had referendums on this issue.^[274]

Brazil

See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil

Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI) reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. Brazil is now the nation that has the largest number of uncontacted tribes, and the island of New Guinea is second.^[277]

The Washington Post reported in 2007, "As has been proved in the past when uncontacted tribes are introduced to other populations and the microbes they carry, maladies as simple as the common cold can be deadly. In the 1970s, 185 members of the Panara tribe died within two years of discovery after contracting such diseases as flu and chickenpox, leaving only 69 survivors."^[278]

Chile

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Chile

According to the 2012 Census, 10% of the Chilean population, including the

Santiago, Araucanía, and Los Lagos Region. The Mapuche successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish rule during the Arauco War. Relations with the new Chilean Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía, the Mapuche surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. Their land was opened to settlement by Chileans and Europeans. Conflict over Mapuche land rights

continues to the present.

Other groups include the

Arica-Parinacota and Tarapacá regions, and the Atacama people (Atacameños), who reside mainly in El Loa

.

Colombia

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Colombia

Guambía people relaxing in Colombia

A minority today within

Spanish conquest, the Muisca were the largest Indigenous civilization geographically between the Inca and the Aztec

empires.

Ecuador

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Ecuador

Amazonian forest in present-day Ecuador

Inca

, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their architectural remains were later destroyed by the Spaniards and the Incas.

Between 55% and 65% of Ecuador's population consists of Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European ancestry while indigenous people comprise about 25%.

Panzaleo, the Chimbuelo, the Salasacan, the Tugua, the Puruhá, the Cañari, and the Saraguro

. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may have been the descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador as mitimaes.

Coastal groups, including the

Achuar

.

In 1986, Indigenous peoples formed the first "truly" national

CONAIE) has been the primary political institution of Indigenous peoples since then and is now the second-largest political party in the nation. It has been influential in national politics, contributing to the ouster of presidents Abdalá Bucaram in 1997 and Jamil Mahuad

in 2000.

French Guiana

French Guiana is home to approximately 10,000 indigenous peoples, such as the Kalina and Lokono. Over time, the indigenous population has protested against various environmental issues, such as illegal gold mining, pollution, and a drastic decrease in wild game.

Guyana

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Guyana

During the early stages of colonization, the indigenous peoples in Guyana partook in trade relations with Dutch settlers and assisted in militia services such as hunting down escaped slaves for the British, which continued until the 19th century. Indigenous Guyanese people are responsible for the invention of the canoe as well as Guyanese pepperpot and the foundation of the Alleluia church.

Guyana's indigenous peoples have been recognized under the Constitution of 1965 and comprise 9.16% of the overall population.

Paraguay

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Paraguay

The vast majority of indigenous peoples in

Guaraní language

is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, with approximately 90% of the population speaking Guaraní. The indigenous population in Paraguay suffers from several social issues such as low literacy rates and inaccessibility to safe drinking water and electricity.

Peru

Main article:

Indigenous peoples in Peru

Cuzco Region

, Peru

According to the 2017 Census, the Indigenous population in Peru makes up approximately 26%.^[5] However, this does not include Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European descent, who make up the majority of the population. Genetic testing indicates that Peruvian Mestizos are of predominantly indigenous ancestry.^[284] Indigenous traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions where Indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive violence.^[285]

Suriname

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Suriname

According to the 2012 census, the indigenous population of Suriname numbers around 20,000, amounting to 3.8% of the population. The most numerous indigenous groups in Suriname primarily comprise the Lokono, Kalina, Tiriyó, and Wayana.

Uruguay

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Uruguay

Unlike most other Spanish-speaking countries, indigenous peoples are not a significant element in Uruguay, as the entire indigenous population is virtually extinct, with a few exceptions such as the Guaraní. Approximately 2.4% of the population in Uruguay is reported to have indigenous ancestry.^[211]

Venezuela

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Venezuela

Most Venezuelans have some degree of indigenous heritage even if they may not identify as such. The 2011 census estimated that around 52% of the population identified as

Timoto-cuicas

, who lived in the Venezuelan Andes. Historians estimate that there were between 350 thousand and 500 thousand Indigenous inhabitants at the time of Spanish colonization. The most densely populated area was the Andean region (Timoto-cuicas), thanks to their advanced agricultural techniques and ability to produce a surplus of food.

The 1999 constitution of Venezuela gives indigenous peoples special rights, although the vast majority of them still live in very critical conditions of poverty. The government provides primary education in their languages in public schools to some of the largest groups, in efforts to continue the languages.

Caribbean

Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

The indigenous population of the Caribbean islands consisted of the

Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The overall population suffered the most adverse colonial effects out of all the indigenous populations in the Americas, as the Kalinago have been reduced to a few islands in the Lesser Antilles such as Dominica and the Taíno are culturally extinct, though a large proportion of populations in Greater Antillean islands such as Puerto Rico, and Cuba to a lesser extent,^[286] possesses degrees of Taíno ancestry. The Cayman Islands were the only island group in the Caribbean to have remained unsettled by indigenous peoples before the era of colonialism.^[287]

Rise of Indigenous movements

Part of a series on
Indigenous rights
Rights
Ancestral domain Intellectual property Land rights Language Traditional knowledge Treaty rights Water and sanitation Protection
Governmental organizations
ACHPR AID Arctic Council BIA CIP CIRNAC DTA FUNAI INPI JAKOA NCIP NIAA MCHTA TPK UNPFII
NGOs and political groups
AFN Amazon Conservation Team Amazon Watch CAP COICA CONAECDA CONAIE Cultural Survival EZLN fPcN IPACC IPCB IWGIA Land Back NARF ONIC Survival International The Red Nation UNPO KAFFED more ...
Issues
Aboriginal titles Biopiracy Civilizing mission Climate change Discovery doctrine Discrimination Ecocide Genocide MMIW Indigenous decolonization Inhabited lands Indigenism Settler colonialism Truth commissions Uncontacted peoples
Legal representation
ILO 107 ILO 169 United Nations Declaration WIPO IGC
Countries
Argentina Australia Brazil Denmark Finland Malaysia Namibia New Zealand Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Suriname Venezuela
Category
v t e

Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have become more politically active in asserting their treaty rights and expanding their influence. Some have organized to achieve some sort of

Amazon Basin. Similar movements for Indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the accession of native Indigenous groups into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization

.

There has been a recognition of Indigenous movements on an international scale. The membership of the United Nations voted to adopt the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, despite dissent from some of the stronger countries of the Americas.

In Colombia, various Indigenous groups have protested the denial of their rights. People organized a march in Cali in October 2008 to demand the government live up to promises to protect Indigenous lands, defend the Indigenous against violence, and reconsider the free trade pact with the United States.^[288]

Indigenous heads of state

The first Indigenous President of the Americas was

Simon Bolivar in the Spanish-American Wars of Independence. José María Melo led the Republic of New Granada during the Colombian Civil War of 1854 but eventually lost and was exiled on December 4, 1854.^[289]

The first Indigenous candidate to be democratically elected as head of a country in the Americas was Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Mexican who was elected President of Mexico in 1858 and led the country until 1872 and led the country to victory during the Second French intervention in Mexico.^[290]

In 1930

Indigenous Peruvian ancestry and the first in South America.^[291]

He came to power in a military coup.

In 2005, Evo Morales of the Aymara people was the first Indigenous candidate elected as president of Bolivia and the first elected in South America.^[292]

Genetic research

Main article:

Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

See also:

Y-DNA haplogroups in Indigenous peoples of the Americas

matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.^[295] Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.^[296] AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.^[296]

Genetic comparisons of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome of Native Americans to that of certain

Sayan mountains that are genetically closest to" Indigenous Americans.^[297]

Some scientific evidence links them to North Asian peoples, specifically the

blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, and limited DNA studies.^{[298][299][300]}

The common occurrence of the

Korean, and Ainu populations.^[301][302]

Available genetic patterns lead to two main theories of genetic episodes affecting the Indigenous peoples of the Americas; first with the initial peopling of the

populations.^[304]

The most popular theory among anthropologists is the

haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.^{[310][311][312]} This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.^[313][314]

Multiple recent findings on autosomal DNA and full genome revealed more information about the formation, settlement, and external relationships of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to other populations. Native Americans are very closely related to the

East Asian peoples. Native American genetic ancestry is occasionally dubbed as "Amerindian". This type of ancestry largely overlaps with "Paleosiberian" ancestry but is differentiated from "Neo-Siberian" ancestry which represents historical expansions from Northeast Asia and is today widespread among Siberian populations. The ancestors of Native Americans used a single migration route, most likely through Beringia, and subsequently populated all of the Americas in a time range between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago. Possible contact between Native Americans and Polynesians dates back to 1,400 years ago. Previously hypothesized "Paleo-Indian" groups turned out to be genetically identical to modern Native Americans. The controversial claim that the first peoples came from Europe via the North Atlantic, based on an ostensible similarity in stone-tool technology between the Solutrean culture of Pleistocene Europe and Clovis in North America, was undermined by the genome of the Anzick Clovis child, which sits squarely on the branch of Ancestral Native American peoples. No ancient or present-day genome (or mtDNA or Y chromosome marker) in the Americas has shown any direct affinities to Upper Palaeolithic European populations.^{[315][316][317][318][319][320][321][322]}

The date for the formation of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas gene pool ranges from 36,000 to 25,000 years ago, with their internal diverging being around 21,000 years ago, during the settlement of the Americas.

Ancient North Eurasians, closer related to modern Europeans, giving rise to both Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Native Americans.^[324] Based on a 2023 mitochondrial DNA study, a subsequent wave of migration from Northern China, originating near the present-day cities of Beijing and Tianjin, occurred as recently as 9000 BCE, following a previously unknown coastal route from Asia to America.^[325]

Notable people

Main article:

List of indigenous people of the Americas

See also

• Indigenous peoples in Ecuador
• Indigenous peoples in Paraguay
• Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica
• Indigenous peoples in Argentina
• Indigenous peoples of Peru
• Indigenous peoples in Canada
• Indigenous peoples in Colombia
• Indigenous peoples in Brazil
• Indigenous peoples in Chile
• Languages of Guatemala
• Indigenous languages of the Americas

• Ancient American engineering
• Andean culture (disambiguation)

List of Indigenous peoples

• List of Greenlandic Inuit
• List of Indigenous artists of the Americas
• List of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• List of Indigenous writers from the Americas

Culture

• Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Chunkey
• Fully feathered basket
• Indian Mass
• Native American religion
• Pow wow
• Shamanism

Population and demographics

• Child development of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Indigenous Movements in the Americas
• Origins of Paleoindians
• Pacific Islander
• Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Central and South America

• Indigenous peoples of South America
• List of Mayan languages
• Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas

Caribbean

• Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean
• Indigenous peoples of Guyana
• Indigenous peoples of Suriname

North America

• Genocide of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• History of the west coast of North America
• List of traditional territories of the Indigenous peoples of North America
• Native Americans in the United States
  • List of American Inuit
  • Native American Languages Act of 1990
  • Native American weaponry
  • Native Americans in German popular culture
  • Republic of Lakotah
• Redskin

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Books

• Barnes, Ian (2015). The Historical Atlas of Native Americans. New York: Chartwell Books.
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• Cappel, Constance (2007). The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at
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• Cappel, Constance, ed. (2006). Odawa Language and Legends: Andrew J. Blackbird and Raymond Kiogima. Xlibris.
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• Dean, Bartholomew (2002). "State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia: A Lost Decade, 1990–2000". In
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• Dean, Bartholomew; Levi, Jerome M. (2003). At the Risk of Being Heard: Identity, Indigenous Rights, and Postcolonial States. Ann Arbor:
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• Dean, Bartholomew (January 2006). "Salt of the Mountain: Campa Asháninka History and Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle (review)". The Americas. 62 (3): 464–466.
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• Josephy, Alvin M. Jr. (1995). 500 Nations: An Illustrated History of North American Indians. London: Hutchinson/Pimlico.
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• Kane, Katie (1999). "Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination". Cultural Critique. 42 (42): 81–103.
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• Krech, Shepard III (1999). The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. New York:
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• Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1994). An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires. Connecticut Greenwood Press.
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• Todd, Roy; Thornton, Martin; Collins, D. N. (2001). Aboriginal people and other Canadians: shaping new relationships. University of Ottawa Press.
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• Varese, Stefano;
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Further reading

• Hamilton, Charles, ed. (1972) [1950 (The Macmillan Company printing)]. Cry of the Thunderbird: The American Indian's Own Story. The Civilization of the American Indian Series Vol. 119. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
  OCLC 483932822
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Native Americans (category)

New International Encyclopedia article about "American Indians

".

• America's Stone Age Explorers, from
  Nova
• A History of the Native People of Canada from the
  Canadian Museum of Civilization
• Indigenous Peoples in Brazil from the Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)
• Official website of the National Museum of the American Indian, part of the Smithsonian Institution
• Chamberlain, Alexander Francis (1911). "Indians, North American" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).