Indigenous peoples in Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada
First Nations Inuit Métis
History Timeline Paleo-Indians Pre-colonization Genetics Residential schools gravesites Indian hospitals Conflicts First Nations Inuit Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Politics Indigenous law British Columbia Treaty Process Crown and Indigenous peoples Health Policy Idle No More Indian Act Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada Land Back Land claims Land defender Land title Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women Numbered Treaties Royal Commission Self-government Specific claims Treaty rights Case law Organizations Politics
Culture Art Indigenous cultures Indigenous personalities Country food Music
Demographics Indian reserves AB FN Métis Atlantic CA BC MB ON QC SK Territories Pacific Coast
Linguistics Indigenous languages Inuit languages Chinuk Wawa Indigenous English Dialects NAPA Aboriginal syllabics Chinuk pipa Inuit grammar
Religions Traditional beliefs Inuit religion
Index Index of articles Indigenous First Nations Inuit Métis Stubs
Indigenous North Americas  Canada portal
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Indigenous peoples in Canada (also known as Aboriginals)

As of the 2021 census, the Indigenous population totalled 1,807,250 people, or 5.0% of the national population, with 1,048,405 First Nations people, 624,220 Métis, and 70,540 Inuit.^[1] 7.7% of the population under the age of 14 are of Indigenous descent.^[17] There are over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music.^[18][19] National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples to the history of Canada.^[20] First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Indigenous community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity.^[21]

Terminology

In Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples.^[22] Aboriginal peoples is a legal term encompassing all Indigenous peoples living in Canada.^[23][24] Aboriginal peoples has begun to be considered outdated and is slowly being replaced by the term Indigenous peoples.^{[nb 1][26]} There is also an effort to recognize each Indigenous group as a distinct nation, much as there are distinct European, African, and Asian cultures in their respective places.^[27]

First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use since the 1970s replacing Indians and Indian bands in everyday vocabulary.^[23][24] However, on reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnic identity. In conversation, this would be "I am Haida", or "we are Kwantlens", in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities.^[28] Also coming into general use since the 1970s, First Peoples refers to all Indigenous groups, i.e. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.^[29][30][2]

Native

Notwithstanding Canada's location within the Americas, the term Native American is hardly ever used in Canada, in order to avoid any confusion due to the ambiguous meaning of the word "American". Therefore, the term is typically used only in reference to the Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States.^[31] Native Canadians was often used in Canada to differentiate this American term until the 1980s.^[32]

In contrast to the more-specific Aboriginal, one of the issues with the term native is its general applicability: in certain contexts, it could be used in reference to non-Indigenous peoples in regards to an individual place of origin/birth.^[33] For instance, people who were born or grew up in Calgary may call themselves "Calgary natives", as in they are native to that city. With this in mind, even the term native American, as another example, may very well indicate someone who is native to America rather than a person who is ethnically Indigenous to the boundaries of the present-day United States. In this sense, native may encompass a broad range of populations and is therefore not recommended,^[33] although it is not generally considered offensive.

Indian

The Indian Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. I-5) sets the legal term Indian, designating that "a person who pursuant to this Act is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian."^[34] Section 5 of the act states that a registry shall be maintained "in which shall be recorded the name of every person who is entitled to be registered as an Indian under this Act."^[34] No other term is legally recognized for the purpose of registration and the term Indian specifically excludes reference to Inuit as per section 4 of the act.

Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution; however, its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive.^[2]

Eskimo

The term

Paleo-Indian period

According to

Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.[43]^[44] The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years.^[45][46][47] Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.^[48][49][50]

The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago.

The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals.^[57] The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000.^[58] Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as hyenas and large camels.^[59] Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago.^[58]

Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s.

Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago.^[61] The Folsom tradition is characterized by the use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison.^[62]

The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began.^[63] Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii.^[64] Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–9,000 years ago.^[64] In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designated X̱á:ytem (near Mission, British Columbia) as a national historic site, one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner.^[65]

The

The North American climate stabilized by 8000 

The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna, and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices.^[70] Aboriginal religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies.^[71]

The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status.

The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago).^[79] These Paleo-Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades (microblades) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials, such as bone or antler. Scrapers, engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits.^[79] The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions. These two groups, ancestors of Thule people, were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 CE.^{[79]: 179–81}

Post-Archaic periods

PP

S

L

Great Lakes area of the Hopewell Interaction Area:
PP=Point Peninsula complex
S=Saugeen complex
L=Laurel complex

The Old Copper complex societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture, and are pre-pottery in nature.^[80] Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements.^[80]

The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales in Ontario, Quebec, and Maritime regions.^[81] The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.^[70] They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash, corn, and bean crops.^[70]

The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the

First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character.

Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic, displacing the Dorset culture (in Inuktitut, the Tuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit.^[95] Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society.^[96] By 1300, the Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions.^[16]

Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the

The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French)^[105] and Cree, Ojibway, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Menominee, Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and other First Nations.^[15] Their history dates to the mid-17th century.^[3] When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage.^[106] The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, as well as the Northwest Territories (NWT).^[107]

Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor Tom Jackson,^[108] Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford, and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements: the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial and subsequent execution.^{[109][110][111]}

The languages inherently Métis are either

Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis;[117] the Métis, their heritage and Aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations.^[118]

Forced assimilation

From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as "Canadian culture."^[119][120] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of the Aboriginal peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act^[121] and the Indian Act,^[122] focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.

Christianization

The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by the Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system:

Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system… it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship."^[128]

Beginning in 1847 and lasting until 1996, the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes.^[129] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, and abuse.^[130]

According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to

Politics, law, and legislation

Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law

The term

Treaties

the Crown from 1871 to 1921. These treaties are agreements with the Crown administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations.^[137]

In 1973, Canada re-started signing new treaties and agreements with Indigenous peoples to address

modern treaty implemented under the new framework was the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement in 1970. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement of 1993 lead to the creation of the Inuit-majority territory of Nunavut later that decade. The Canadian Crown continues to sign new treaties with Indigenous peoples, notably though the British Columbia Treaty Process.^[138]

According to the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord, "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada.^[29] The Supreme Court of Canada argued that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights."^[29] First Nations interpreted agreements covered in treaty 8 to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."^[139] However, the Canadian government has frequently breached the Crown's treaty obligations over the years, and tries to address these issues by negotiating specific land claim.^[140]

Indian Act

Main article: Indian Act

The Indian Act is federal legislation that dates from 1876. There have been over 20 major changes made to the act since then, the last time being in 1951; amended in 1985 with Bill C-31. The Indian Act indicates how reserves and bands can operate and defines who is recognized as an "Indian."^[141]

In 1985, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-31, An Act to Amend the Indian Act. Because of a constitutional requirement, the bill took effect on 17 April 1985.^[142]

• It ends discriminatory provisions of the Indian Act, especially those that discriminated against women.^[142]
• It changes the meaning of status and for the first time allows for limited reinstatement of Indians who were denied or lost status or band membership.^[142]
• It allows bands to define their own membership rules.^[142]

Those people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians. C-31 clarified that various sections of the Indian Act apply to band members. The sections under debate concern community life and land holdings. Sections pertaining to Indians (First Nations peoples) as individuals (in this case, wills and taxation of personal property) were not included.^[142]

Royal Commission

Main article: Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

Canadian residential schools

with the Indigenous peoples of Canada

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was a

Royal Commission undertaken by the Government of Canada in 1991 to address issues of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada.^[143] It assessed past government policies toward Aboriginal people, such as residential schools, and provided policy recommendations to the government.^[144] The Commission issued its final report in November 1996. The five-volume, 4,000-page report covered a vast range of issues; its 440 recommendations called for sweeping changes to the interaction between Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal people and the governments in Canada.^[143] The report "set out a 20-year agenda for change."^[145]

Health policy

Main article:

Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)

In 1995, the Government of Canada announced the Aboriginal Right to Self-Government Policy.

Indian Health Transfer Policy provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by Aboriginal peoples, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on self-determination in health.^[147][148] Through this process, the decision to enter transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities can take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities.^[149] The National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO) incorporated in 2000, was an Aboriginal-designed and-controlled not-for-profit body in Canada that worked to influence and advance the health and well-being of Aboriginal Peoples.^[150]

Its funding was discontinued in 2012.

Political organization

Further information:

First Nations government (Canada) and History of Indigenous organizations in Canada

First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in size from band societies of a few people to multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois. First Nations leaders from across the country formed the Assembly of First Nations, which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968.^[151] The Métis and the Inuit are represented nationally by the Métis National Council and Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami respectively.

Today's political organizations have resulted from interaction with European-style methods of government through the

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in all affairs concerning land, entitlement, and rights.^[151] The First Nation groups that operate independently do not belong to these groups.^[151]

Culture

See also:

Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of North America

Countless Indigenous words, inventions and games have become an everyday part of

Canadian language and use. The canoe, snowshoes, the toboggan, lacrosse, tug of war, maple syrup and tobacco are just a few of the products, inventions and games.^[153] Some of the words include the barbecue, caribou, chipmunk, woodchuck, hammock, skunk, and moose.^[154]

Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use Indigenous names. The word Canada itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning 'village' or 'settlement'.^[155] The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from the Saskatchewan River, which in the Cree language is called Kisiskatchewani Sipi, meaning 'swift-flowing river'.^[156] Ottawa, the name of Canada's capital city, comes from the Algonquin language term adawe, meaning 'to trade'.^[156]

Modern youth groups, such as Scouts Canada and the Girl Guides of Canada, include programs based largely on Indigenous lore, arts and crafts, character building and outdoor camp craft and living.^[157]

Aboriginal cultural areas depend upon their ancestors' primary

squash.^[19][158] While for the Inuit, hunting was the primary source of food with seals the primary component of their diet.^[159] The caribou, fish, other marine mammals and to a lesser extent plants, berries and seaweed are part of the Inuit diet. One of the most noticeable symbols of Inuit culture, the inuksuk is the emblem of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics. Inuksuit are rock sculptures made by stacking stones; in the shape of a human figure, they are called inunnguaq.^[160]

Tsuu T'ina

children at a parade

Wendake in Quebec City or Enoch Cree Nation 135 in the Edmonton Metropolitan Region. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.^[162] Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on them, from spirituality to political attitudes.^[19][158] National Indigenous Peoples Day is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year, by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, to be celebrated on June 21 annually.^[20] Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as a statutory holiday.^[20]

Languages

Further information:

Spoken languages of Canada § Aboriginal languages

See also: Canadian Aboriginal syllabics

There are 13

vehicular language in territorial government.^[165]

In the Northwest Territories, the

Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwichʼin, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłįchǫ.^[166] Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.^[164]

Aboriginal language	No. of speakers	Mother tongue	Home language
Cree	99,950	78,855	47,190
Inuktitut	35,690	32,010	25,290
Ojibway	32,460	11,115	11,115
Montagnais-Naskapi (Innu)	11,815	10,970	9,720
Dene	11,130	9,750	7,490
Oji-Cree (Anihshininiimowin)	12,605	8,480	8,480
Mi'kmaq	8,750	7,365	3,985
Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)	6,495	5,585	3,780
Atikamekw	5,645	5,245	4,745
Blackfoot	4,915	3,085	3,085
For a complete list see: Spoken languages of Canada

Source': Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship Ottawa, 2007, pp. 2, 6, 10.

Visual art

Further information:

Visual arts by Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Métis girl wearing a traditional shawl

Indigenous peoples were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of European

Eastern Woodlands, Subarctic, and Arctic.^[167]

Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used in conjunction with other arts.

Shamans' masks and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling and music.^[167] Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.^[168] The distinct Métis cultures that have arisen from inter-cultural relationships with Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms.^[169] During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of forced and cultural assimilation toward Indigenous peoples. The Indian Act banned manifestations of the Sun Dance, the Potlatch, and works of art depicting them.^[170]

It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that Indigenous artists such as Mungo Martin, Bill Reid and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and re-invent Indigenous art traditions. Currently, there are Indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two Indigenous artists, Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore, have represented Canada at the Venice Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively.^[167]

Gioa Haven, Nunavut

Music

Main article:

Aboriginal music of Canada

The Aboriginal peoples of Canada encompass diverse ethnic groups with their individual musical traditions. Music is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may be dance music accompanied by rattles and drums. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion, used to mark occasions like Midewivin ceremonies and Sun Dances.

Traditionally, Indigenous peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada.^[171] First Nations people made gourds and animal horns into rattles, which were elaborately carved and brightly painted.^[172] In woodland areas, they made horns of birch bark and drumsticks of carved antlers and wood. Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides. These musical instruments provide the background for songs, and songs the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies.^[170][171]

Demography

Further information:

Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

See also: List of First Nations peoples and List of Indian reserves in Canada

There are three (First Nations,

sections 25 and 35.^[22] Under the Employment Equity Act, Aboriginal people are a designated group along with women, visible minorities, and persons with disabilities;^[173] as such, they are neither a visible minority under the Act or in the view of Statistics Canada.^[174]

The

2016 Canadian Census enumerated 1,673,780 Aboriginal people in Canada, 4.9% of the country's total population.^[175] This total includes 977,230 First Nations people, 587,545 Métis, and 65,025 Inuit. National representative bodies of Aboriginal people in Canada include the Assembly of First Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Métis National Council, the Native Women's Association of Canada, the National Association of Native Friendship Centres, and the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples.^[176]

In 2016, Indigenous children ages zero to four accounted for 7.7% of those aged zero to four in Canada, and made up 51.2% of children in this age group living in foster care.^[177]

In the 20th century the Aboriginal population of Canada increased tenfold.^[178] Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew by 29%. After the 1960s the infant mortality level on reserves dropped dramatically and the population grew by 161%.^[179][180] Since the 1980s the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25.^[178][180]

Indigenous people assert that their sovereign rights are valid, and point to the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which is mentioned in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, Section 25, the British North America Acts and the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (to which Canada is a signatory) in support of this claim.^[181][182]

Geographical distribution

Provinces & territories

Province / Territory	Number	%[a]	First Nations (Indian)	Métis	Inuit	Multiple	Other[b]
British Columbia	270,585	5.9%	172,520	89,405	1,615	4,350	2,695
Alberta	258,640	6.5%	136,590	114,370	2,500	2,905	2,280
Saskatchewan	175,020	16.3%	114,565	57,875	360	1,305	905
Manitoba	223,310	18.0%	130,505	89,360	605	2,020	820
Ontario	374,395	2.8%	236,685	120,585	3,860	5,725	7,540
Quebec	182,890	2.3%	92,650	69,360	13,940	2,760	4,170
New Brunswick	29,385	4.0%	17,570	10,205	385	470	750
Nova Scotia	51,490	5.7%	25,830	23,315	795	835	720
Prince Edward Island	2,740	2.0%	1,870	710	75	20	65
Newfoundland and Labrador	45,725	8.9%	28,370	7,790	6,450	560	2,560
Yukon	8,195	23.3%	6,690	1,015	225	160	105
Northwest Territories	20,860	50.7%	13,180	3,390	4,080	155	55
Nunavut	30,550	85.9%	190	165	30,140	55	10
Canada	1,673,780	4.9%	977,230	587,545	65,025	21,310	22,670
Source: 2016 Census[183] ^ % of the provincial or territorial population that is Aboriginal ^ According to Statistics Canada, this figure "Includes those who identified themselves as Registered Indians and/or band members without identifying themselves as North American Indian, Métis or Inuit in the Aboriginal identity question."

cultural areas, with shared cultural traits.^[184]

The Canadian regions are:

• Eskimo–Aleut languages
  )
• Subarctic culture area (Na-Dene languages and Algic languages
  )
• Eastern Woodlands (Northeast) cultural area (Algic languages and Iroquoian languages)
• Siouan–Catawban languages
  )
• Northwest Plateau cultural area (Salishan languages)
• Northwest Coast cultural area (Penutian languages, Tsimshianic languages and Wakashan languages)

Urban population

Across Canada, 56% of Indigenous peoples live in urban areas. The urban Indigenous population is the fastest-growing population segment in Canada.^[185]

Urban population^[185]

City	Urban Indigenous population	Percent of population
Winnipeg	92,810	12.2%
Edmonton	76,205	5.9%
Vancouver	61,455	2.5%
Toronto	46,315	0.8%
Calgary	41,645	3.0%
Ottawa-Gatineau	38,115	2.9%
Montreal	34,745	0.9%
Saskatoon	31,350	10.9%
Regina	21,650	9.3%
Victoria	17,245	4.8%
Prince Albert	16,830	39.7%
Halifax	15,815	4.0%
Sudbury	15,695	9.7%
Thunder Bay	15,075	12.7%

See also

• Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians
• Native Americans in the United States
• Aboriginal land title in Canada
• Settler Colonialism in Canada
• Indigenous education in Canada

Notes

1. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In the Canadian context, Indigenous is capitalized when discussing peoples, beliefs or communities in the same way European or Canadian is used to refer to non-Indigenous topics or people.^[9]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-09-21). "Indigenous identity by Registered or Treaty Indian status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
2. ^ ^{a b c d} "Terminology of First Nations, Native, Aboriginal and Métis" (PDF). Aboriginal Infant Development Programs of B.C. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 14, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2010.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-Culture". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Government of Canada. May 12, 2006. Archived from the original on October 20, 2009. Retrieved September 18, 2009.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada)-ICC Charter". Inuit Circumpolar Council > ICC Charter and By-laws > ICC Charter. 2007. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved September 18, 2009.
5. ^ ^{a b} Todd, Thornton & Collins 2001, p. 10.
6. ^ "Words First An Evolving Terminology Relating to Indigenous peoples in Canada". Communications Branch of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. 2004. Archived from the original on November 14, 2007. Retrieved June 26, 2010.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Olson & Pappas 1994, p. 213.
8. ^ "Indigenous or Aboriginal: Which is correct?". September 21, 2016. Archived from the original on September 22, 2016. Retrieved November 19, 2020.
9. ^ ^{a b} McKay, Celeste (April 2015). "Briefing Note on Terminology". University of Manitoba. Archived from the original on October 25, 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
10. ^ "Native American, First Nations or Aboriginal? | Druide". www.druide.com. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
11. ISBN 978-0-8032-1710-2
    . Retrieved October 3, 2010.
12. ISBN 978-0-19-507445-1
    . Retrieved October 3, 2010.
13. ^ Kalman, Harold; Mills, Edward (September 30, 2007). "Architectural History: Early First Nations". The Canadian Encyclopedia (Historica-Dominion). Retrieved November 27, 2013.
14. ISBN 978-0-8020-4195-1
    . Retrieved October 3, 2010.
15. ^ ^{a b} "What to Search: Topics-Canadian Genealogy Centre-Library and Archives Canada". Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups. Government of Canada. May 27, 2009. Archived from the original on July 5, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2009.
16. ^ ^{a b} "Innu Culture 3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'". Adrian Tanner Department of Anthropology-Memorial University of Newfoundland. 1999. Archived from the original on August 23, 2011. Retrieved October 5, 2009.
17. ^ [Indigenous peoples in Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census]
18. ^ 2011 National Household Survey: Indigenous Peoples in Canada: First Nations People, Métis and Inuit
19. ^ ^{a b c} "Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-object". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. May 12, 2006. Archived from the original on October 15, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2009.
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Sources

• Jameson, John H. (1997). Presenting archaeology to the public: digging for truths. Rowman Altamira.
  ISBN 978-0-7619-8909-7
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• Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1994). An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires. Connecticut Greenwood Press.
  ISBN 978-0-313-27497-8
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• Taylor, Colin F. (2002). The American Indian. Running Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7624-1389-8
  .
• Ray, Arthur J. (1996).
  ISBN 978-1-55263-633-6
  .
• Todd, Roy; Thornton, Martin; Collins, D. N. (2001). Aboriginal people and other Canadians: shaping new relationships. University of Ottawa Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7766-0541-8
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• Winchell, N.H. (1881). Ancient Copper Mines of Isle Royale. Vol. 19. New York: Popular Science Monthly.

Further reading

Further information: Bibliography of Canadian history § Indigenous

• Asch, Michael (1998). Aboriginal and treaty rights in Canada: essays on law, equality, and respect for difference. University of British Columbia Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7748-0581-0
  .
• Beavon, D; Voyageur, C; Newhouse, D (2005). Hidden in plain sight: contributions of Aboriginal peoples to Canadian. University of Toronto Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-8800-0
  .
• Borrows, John (2002). Recovering Canada: the resurgence of Indigenous law. University of Toronto Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-3679-7
  .
• Cairns, Alan (2000). Citizens plus: aboriginal peoples and the Canadian state. University of British Columbia Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7748-0767-8
  .
• Cardinal, Tantoo (2004). Our story: Aboriginal voices on Canada's past. Doubleday Canada.
  ISBN 978-0-385-66075-4
  .
• Cavell, Edward (2009). Classic Images of Canada's First Nations: 1850–1920. Heritage House.
  ISBN 978-1-894974-64-6
  . First nations of canada.
• Clark, Ella Elizabeth (October 5, 2011). Indian Legends of Canada. Random House Digital, Inc.
  ISBN 978-1-55199-512-0
  .
• Dickason, Olive Patricia (1992). Canada's first nations: a history of founding peoples from earliest times. University of Oklahoma Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8061-2438-4
  .
• Daschuk, James W. (2013).
  ISBN 978-088977-296-0
  .
• Dupuis, Renée (2002). Justice for Canada's Aboriginal peoples. James Lorimer and Company.
  ISBN 978-1-55028-775-2
  .
• Elias, Peter Douglas (1991). Development of aboriginal people's communities. Captus Press.
  ISBN 978-0-921801-51-1
  . Aboriginal peoples Canada.
• Knopf, Kerstin (2008). Aboriginal Canada revisited. University of Ottawa Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7766-0679-8
  .
• Leacock, Stephen (2009), The Dawn of Canadian History: A Chronicle of Aboriginal Canada, Dodo Press
  ISBN 1-4099-4930-3
• Loovers, Jan Peter Laurens (2019). Reading Life with Gwich'in An Educational Approach. Oxon: Routledge.
  ISBN 978-0-429-86804-7
  .
• Magocsi, Robert (2002). Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction. University of Toronto Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8020-3630-8
  .
• Nock, David; Haig-BroWN, Celia (2006). With good intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal relations in colonial Canada. University of British Columbia Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7748-1138-5
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indigenous peoples in Canada.

Wikisource has several original texts related to Indigenous peoples in Canada.

• Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada Portal – Government of Canada
• Aboriginal Peoples and Communities Archived August 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada
• Aboriginal Heritage Resources and Services – Library and Archives Canada
• Aboriginal Virtual Exhibits – Virtual Museum of Canada
• Battle for Aboriginal Treaty Rights – Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (Digital Archives)
• First Peoples of Canada – The Canadian Museum of Civilization
• "Aboriginals: Treaties and Relations". Canada in the Making. Canadiana.org. Archived from the original on 2004-06-03.
• Map of historical territory treaties – Natural Resources Canada