Indo-Aryan languages
Indo-Aryan | |
---|---|
Indic | |
Geographic distribution | Luwati, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.
Dardic ) Khowar (Dardic)
Shina (Dardic)
Kohistani (Dardic) Kashmiri (Dardic)
Northwestern ) Sindhi (Northwestern)
Western ) Gujarati (Western)
Khandeshi (Western) Bhili (Western)
Central Pahari (Northern) Nepali (Northern)
Western Hindi (Central )Eastern Hindi (Central)Bengali-Assamese (Eastern ) Bihari (Eastern)
Odia (Eastern)
Halbi (Eastern)
Southern ) Sinhala (Southern)
Maldivian (Southern)
(not shown: Chinali-Lahuli ) |
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The Indo-Aryan languages (or sometimes Indic languages
Modern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Old Indo-Aryan languages such as early Vedic Sanskrit, through Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Prakrits).[6][7][8][9] The largest such languages in terms of first-speakers are Hindi–Urdu (c. 330 million),[10] Bengali (242 million),[11] Punjabi (about 120 million),[12] Marathi (112 million), and Gujarati (60 million). A 2005 estimate placed the total number of native speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages at nearly 900 million people.[13] Other estimates are higher suggesting a figure of 1.5 billion speakers of Indo-Aryan languages.[2]
Classification
Theories
The Indo-Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a dialect continuum, where languages are often transitional towards neighboring varieties.[14] Because of this, the division into languages vs. dialects is in many cases somewhat arbitrary. The classification of the Indo-Aryan languages is controversial, with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification.[15] There are concerns that a tree model is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo-Aryan, with some scholars suggesting the wave model.[16]
Subgroups
The following table of proposals is expanded from Masica (1991). The table lists only some modern Indo-Aryan languages.
Model | Odia | Bengali– Assamese |
Bihari | E. Hindi | W. Hindi | Rajasthani | Gujarati | Pahari |
E. Punjabi |
W. Punjabi | Sindhi | Dardic | Marathi– Konkani |
Sinhala– Dhivehi |
Romani |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hoernlé (1880) | E | E~W | W | N | W | ? | W | ? | S | ? | ? | ||||
Grierson (−1927) | E | C~E | C | NW | non-IA | S | non-IA | ||||||||
Chatterji (1926) | E | Midland | SW | N | NW | non-IA | S | NW | |||||||
Grierson (1931) | E | Inter. | Midland | Inter. | NW | non-IA | S | non-IA | |||||||
Katre (1968) | E | C | NW | Dardic | S | ? | |||||||||
Nigam (1972) | E | C | C (+NW) | C | ? | NW | N | S | ? | ||||||
Cardona (1974) | E | C | (S)W | NW | (S)W | ? | |||||||||
Turner (−1975) | E | C | SW | C (C.)~NW (W.) | NW | SW | C | ||||||||
Kausen (2006) | E | C | W | N | NW | Dardic | S | Romani | |||||||
Kogan (2016) | E | ? | C | C~NW | NW | C~NW | C | NW | non-IA | S | Insular | C | |||
Ethnologue (2020)[17] | E | EC | C | W | EC (E.)~W (C., W.) | W | NW | S | W | ||||||
Glottolog (2020)[18] | E | Bihari | C | N | NW | S | Dhivehi-Sinhala | C |
Inner–Outer hypothesis
The Inner–Outer hypothesis argues for a core and periphery of Indo-Aryan languages, with Outer Indo-Aryan (generally including Eastern and Southern Indo-Aryan, and sometimes Northwestern Indo-Aryan,
Groups
The below classification follows Masica (1991), and Kausen (2006).
Dardic
The Dardic languages (also Dardu or Pisaca) are a group of Indo-Aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the Indian subcontinent. Dardic was first formulated by George Abraham Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India but he did not consider it to be a subfamily of Indo-Aryan. The Dardic group as a genetic grouping (rather than areal) has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship: Southworth, for example, says "the viability of Dardic as a genuine subgroup of Indo-Aryan is doubtful" and "the similarities among [Dardic languages] may result from subsequent convergence".[20]: 149
The Dardic languages are thought to be transitional with Punjabi and Pahari (e.g. Zoller describes Kashmiri as "an interlink between Dardic and West Pahāṛī"),[21]: 83 as well as non-Indo-Aryan Nuristani; and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in the context of Proto-Indo-Aryan.
- Kashmiri: Kishtwari, Poguli;
- Shina: ;
- Chitrali: Khowar;
- Kohistani: ;
- Pashayi
- Kunar: Dameli, Gawar-Bati, Nangalami, Shumashti.
Northern Zone
The Northern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as the Pahari ('hill') languages, are spoken throughout the Himalayan regions of the subcontinent.
Northwestern Zone
Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in the northwestern region of India and eastern region of Pakistan.
- Punjabi
- Puadhi, Sansi
- .
- Central Punjabi: Majhi
- Sindhi: Sindhi, Jadgali, Kutchi, Luwati, Memoni, Khetrani, Kholosi.
Western Zone
Western Indo-Aryan languages, are spoken in the central and western areas within India, such as
- ;
- Wadiyara Koli;
- Bhil: Kalto, Vasavi, Wagdi, Gamit, Vaagri Booli;
- Northern Bhil: Bauria, Bhilori, Magari;
- Central Bhil: ;
- Bareli: Palya Bareli, Pauri Bareli, Rathwi Bareli, Pardhi;
- Khandeshi
- Domaaki
- Domari
- Romani: Carpathian Romani, Balkan Romani, Vlax Romani, Baltic Romani;
- Northern Romani
- British Romani: Angloromani, Welsh Romani
- Northwestern Romani: Sinte Romani, Finnish Kalo
- Northern Romani
Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)
Within India,
- Western Hindi: Hindustani (including Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu), Khariboli, Braj, Haryanvi, Bundeli, Kannauji, Parya;
- ).
Eastern Zone
The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, also known as Magadhan languages, are spoken throughout the eastern subcontinent, including Odisha and Bihar, alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern Himalayan corridor. Bengali is the seventh most-spoken language in the world, and has a strong literary tradition; the national anthems of India and Bangladesh are written in Bengali. Assamese and Odia are the official languages of Assam and Odisha, respectively. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa[23] and ultimately from Magadhi Prakrit.[24][25][23] Eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. It is suggested that "proto-Munda" languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east.[26][27]
- Bihari:
- Bhojpuri, Caribbean Hindustani, Fiji Hindi;
- Magahi, Khortha;
- Maithili, Angika, Bajjika, Thethi, Dehati;
- Sadanic: Nagpuri (Sadri), Kurmali (Panchpargania);
- Tharu:[28] Kochila Tharu, Rana Tharu, Kathariya Tharu, Sonha Tharu, Dangaura, Chitwania Buksa, Majhi, Musasa;
- Kumhali, Kuswaric:[29] Danwar, Bote-Darai;
- Halbic: Halbi, Kamar, Bhunjia, Nahari;
- Odia: Baleswari, Kataki, Ganjami, Sundargadi, Sambalpuri, Desia;
- Bodo Parja, Bhatri, Reli, Kupia;
- ,;
Southern Zone
Marathi-Konkani languages are ultimately descended from Maharashtri Prakrit, whereas Insular Indo-Aryan languages are descended from Elu Prakrit and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland Indo-Aryan counterparts. Insular Indo-Aryan languages (of Sri Lanka and Maldives) started developing independently and diverging from the continental Indo-Aryan languages from around 5th century BCE.[16]
- Marathi-Konkani
- Marathic: ;
- Konkanic: Maharashtrian Konkani.
- Insular Indo-Aryan
Unclassified
The following languages are otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan:
- .
- Badeshi
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2017) |
Indian subcontinent
Dates indicate only a rough time frame.
- Proto-Indo-Aryan (before 1500 BCE, reconstructed)
- Old Indo-Aryan (c. 1500–300 BCE)
- early Old Indo-Aryan: includes Vedic Sanskrit (c. 1500 to 500 BCE)
- late Old Indo-Aryan: Classical Sanskrit(c. 200 CE to 1300 CE)
- Mitanni Indo-Aryan (c. 1400 BCE)
- Middle Indo-Aryan or Prakrits (c. 300 BCE to 1500 CE)
- early Buddhist texts (c. 6th or 5th century BCE)
- early Middle Indo-Aryan: e.g. Ashokan Prakrits, Pali, Gandhari, (c. 300 BCE to 200 BCE)
- middle Middle Indo-Aryan: e.g. Dramatic Prakrits, Elu (c. 200 BCE to 700 CE)
- late Middle Indo-Aryan: e.g. Abahattha (c. 700 CE to 1500 CE)
- Early Modern Indo-Aryan (Late Medieval India): e.g. early Dehlavi dialect
Proto-Indo-Aryan
Proto-Indo-Aryan (or sometimes Proto-Indic[a]) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the pre-Vedic Indo-Aryans. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic.
Mitanni-Aryan hypothesis
Some theonyms, proper names, and other terminology of the Late
In a treaty between the
Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render
Old Indo-Aryan
The earliest evidence of the group is from
While Old Indo-Aryan is the earliest stage of the Indo-Aryan branch, from which all known languages of the later stages Middle and New Indo-Aryan are derived, some documented Middle Indo-Aryan variants cannot fully be derived from the documented form of Old Indo-Aryan (on which Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are based), but betray features that must go back to other undocumented dialects of Old Indo-Aryan.[33]
From Vedic Sanskrit, "
Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)
Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, respectively. Inscriptions in Ashokan Prakrit were also part of this early Middle Indo-Aryan stage.
By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan languages. Apabhraṃśa is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Śravakacāra of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.
The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoption of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors.
The two largest languages that formed from Apabhraṃśa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Assamese, Sindhi, Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, and Punjabi.
New Indo-Aryan
Medieval Hindustani
In the
Outside the Indian subcontinent
Domari
Domari is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by older Dom people scattered across the Middle East. The language is reported to be spoken as far north as Azerbaijan and as far south as central Sudan.[41]: 1 Based on the systematicity of sound changes, linguists have concluded that the ethnonyms Domari and Romani derive from the Indo-Aryan word ḍom.[42]
Lomavren
Parya
Parya is spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the descendants of migrants from the Indian subcontinent. The language retains many features similar to Punjabi and the Western Hindi dialects, while also bearing some influence from Tajik Persian.[44]
Romani
The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo-Aryan languages.[45] Romani varieties, which are mainly spoken throughout Europe, are noted for their relatively conservative nature; maintaining the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, alongside consonantal endings for nominal case. Indeed, these features are no longer evident in most other modern Central Indo-Aryan languages. Moreover, Romani shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person, which corresponds to Dardic languages, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further indication that proto-Romani speakers were originally situated in central regions of the subcontinent, before migrating to northwestern regions. However, there are no known historical sources regarding the development of the Romani language specifically within India.
Research conducted by nineteenth-century scholars Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) demonstrated that the Romani language is most aptly designated as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), as opposed to Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA); establishing that proto-Romani speakers could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.
The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, coupled with its reduction to a two-way nominative-oblique case system. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation, due to the fact that Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally employed three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this aspect today.
It is suggested that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. During this process, most of the neuter nouns became masculine, while several became feminine. For example, the neuter aggi "fire" in Prakrit morphed into the feminine āg in Hindi, and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have additionally been cited as indications that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, possibly as late as the tenth century.
Sindhic migrations
Indentured labourer migrations
The use by the
Phonology
Consonants
Stop positions
The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five
Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before
Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and
Stops | Languages | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
/p/ | / t̪ / |
/ t / |
/ʈ͡ʂ/ | /t͡ʃ/ ~ /t͡ɕ/ | /t͡s/ | /k/ | /q/ | |
Khowar, Shina, Bashkarik, Kalasha | ||||||||
Gawarbati, Phalura, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai | ||||||||
Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Mandeali, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (parts of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rajshahi) | ||||||||
Hindustani, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Sinhala, Odia, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari), Sanskrit,[48] Prakrit, Pali, Maithili, Magahi, Bhojpuri | ||||||||
Romani, Domari, Kholosi | ||||||||
Nepali, dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri) | ||||||||
Rajasthani's S. Mewari | ||||||||
Assamese | ||||||||
Chittagonian | ||||||||
Sylheti |
Nasals
Sanskrit was noted as having five
In languages that lack phonemic nasals at some places of articulation, they can still occur allophonically from place assimilation in a nasal + stop culture, e.g. Hindi /nɡ/ > [ŋɡ].
Nasals | Languages | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/m/ | / n / |
/ɳ/ | /ɲ/ | /ŋ/ | |
Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurashtri, Sindhi, Saraiki | |||||
Sinhala | |||||
Sanskrit, Nepali,[b] Kalami, Odia, Dhundhari, Pashayi, Marwari | |||||
Dhivehi[c] | |||||
Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani (Marwari) | |||||
Nepali, Sylheti, Assamese, Bengali | |||||
Urdu, Romani, Domari |
Aspiration and breathy-voice
Most Indo-Aryan languages have contrastive aspiration (/ʈ/ ~ /ʈʰ/), and some retain historical breathy voice on voiced consonants (/ɖ/ ~ /ɖʱ/). Sometimes both phenomena are analysed as a single aspiration contrast. The places and manners of articulation which allow contrastive aspiration vary by language; e.g. Sindhi permits phonemic /mʱ/, but the phonemic status of this sound in Hindi is uncertain, and many "Dardic" languages lack aspirated retroflex sibilants despite having unaspirated equivalents.[50]
In languages that have lost breathy-voice, the contrast has often been replaced with tone.
Regional developments
Some of these are mentioned in Masica (1991:104–105).
- Wadiyari Kolihas the dental implosive too. Other languages have less complete implosive series, e.g. Kacchi has just /ᶑ ɓ/.
- Prenasalized stops: Sinhala and Maldivian (Dhivehi) have a series of prenasalized stops covering all places except for palatal: /ᵐb ⁿd ᶯɖ ᵑɡ/.
- Palatalization: Kashmiri (natively) and some Romani dialects (from contact with Slavic languages) have contrastive palatalisation.
- Voiceless lateralIn Gawarbati, some Pashai dialects, partly Bashkarik and some Shina dialects have /ɬ/ from clusters of tr kr or sometimes pr; dr gr and br merged with /l/ in these languages.
- Lateral affricates: Bhadarwahihas an unusual series of lateral retroflex affricates (/ʈ͡ꞎ ɖ͡ɭ ɖ͡ɭʱ/ derived from historical /Cɾ/ clusters.
Vowels
Vowel typologies are varied across Indo-Aryan due to diachronic mergers and (in some cases) splits, as well as different accounts by linguists for even the widely-spoken languages. Vowel systems per Masica (1991:108–113) are listed below. Many languages also have phonemic nasal vowels.
Vowels | Languages | |
---|---|---|
16 | /iː i eː e ɨː ɨ əː ə aː a ɔː ɔ oː o uː u/ | Kashmiri |
14 | /ɪ iː ʊ uː e eː ə~ɐ əː o oː æ~ɛ a aː ɔ/ | Maithili |
13 | /iː i eː e æː æ aː a ə oː o uː u/ | Sinhala |
10 | /i ɪ e ɛ · a ə · ɔ o ʊ u/ | Hindustani, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kacchi, Hindko, Rajasthani (most varieties) |
9 | /i ɪ e æ~ɛ · a ə · o ʊ u/ | W. Pahari (Dogri, Rudhari, Mandeali, Pangwali, Khashali, Churahi), Saraiki |
/i ɪ e · a ə · ɔ o ʊ u/ | W. Pahari (Shodochi, Surkhuli) | |
/i ɪ e ɛ · a · ɔ o ʊ u/ | W. Pahari (Jaunsari, Shoracholi, Kullui) | |
8 | /i e ɛ · a ə · ɔ o u/ | Gujarati |
/i e ɛ a · ɒ ɔ o u/ | Assamese | |
/i ɪ e · a ə · o ʊ u/ | Halbi, Bhatri, W. Pahari (Garhwali, Chameali, Gaddi) | |
7 | /i e æ · a · ɔ o u/ | Bengali |
6 | /i e a · ɔ o u/ | Odia, Bishnupriya Manipuri |
/i e · a ə · o u/ | Marathi, Nepali, Lambadi, Sadri/Sadani | |
5 | /i e · a · o u/ | Romani (European dialects) |
Sylheti language is one of the few tonal Indo-Aryan languages, others being Punjabi and a few Dardic languages. The vowels of Sylheti language listed below.[51]
Vowels | Languages | |
---|---|---|
5 | /i e · a · ɔ u/ | Sylheti |
Charts
The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, mostly following Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.
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Sociolinguistics
Register
In many Indo-Aryan languages, the literary register is often more archaic and utilises a different lexicon (Sanskrit or Perso-Arabic) than spoken vernacular. One example is Bengali's high literary form, Sādhū bhāṣā, as opposed to the more modern Calita bhāṣā (Cholito-bhasha).[54] This distinction approaches diglossia.
Language and dialect
In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations
See also
- Indo-Aryans
- Iranic languages
- Indo-Aryan migration
- Proto-Vedic Continuity
- The family of Brahmic scripts
- Linguistic history of India
- Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil
- Dravidian languages
- Languages of Bangladesh
- Languages of India
- Languages of Maldives
- Languages of Nepal
- Languages of Pakistan
- Languages of Sri Lanka
- Languages of South Asia
Notes
References
- ^ a b "Overview of Indo-Aryan languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- ^ a b "Development team" (PDF). inflibnet.ac.in. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ISBN 978-0-521-79488-6. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
- ^ Munshi, S (2009). "Indo-Aryan languages". In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Language of the World. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 522–528.
- ^ Various counts depend on where the line is drawn between a "dialect" and a "language".[citation needed] Glottolog 4.1 lists 224 languages.
- ISBN 978-81-208-2053-1.
The Aryans spoke an Indo-European language sometimes called the Vedic language from which have descended Sanskrit and other Indic languages ... Prakrit was a group of variants which developed alongside Sanskrit.
- ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
... a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct continuations of R̥gvedic Sanskrit, the main base of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which, despite many similarities, were different from R̥gvedic and in some regards even more archaic.
- ^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia, Volume 7. International Learnings Systems. 1968.
Most Aryan languages of India and Pakistan belong to the Indo-Aryan family, and are descended from Sanskrit through the intermediate stage of Prakrit. The Indo-Aryan languages are by far the most important numerically and the territory occupied by them extends over the whole of northern and central India and reaches as far south as Goa.
- ISBN 9780871692481.
The modern, regional Indo-Aryan languages developed from Prakrt, an early 'unrefined' (prakrta) form of Sanskrit, around the close of the first millennium A.D.
- ^ Standard Hindi first language: 260.3 million (2001), as second language: 120 million (1999). Urdu L1: 68.9 million (2001–2014), L2: 94 million (1999): Ethnologue 19.
- ^ Bengali or Bangla-Bhasa, L1: 242.3 million (2011), L2: 19.2 million (2011), Ethnologue
- ^ "Världens 100 största språk 2010" [The world's 100 largest languages in 2010]. Nationalencyclopedin (in Swedish). Government of Sweden publication. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6.
- ^ Masica (1991), p. 25.
- ^ Masica (1991), pp. 446–463.
- ^ S2CID 212688418.
- ^ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2020). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (23rd ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Indo-Aryan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ Kogan, Anton I. (2005). Dardskie yazyki. Geneticheskaya kharakteristika [Dardic language. Genetic characteristic] (in Russian). Moskva: Vostochnaya literatura.
- ISBN 0-415-33323-7.
- ^ Zoller, Claus Peter (2016). "Outer and Inner Indo-Aryan, and northern India as an ancient linguistic area". Acta Orientalia. 77: 71–132.
- ISBN 9231028138p 734
- ^ ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
- ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
- ^ Claus, Peter J.; Diamond, Sarah; Mills, Margaret Ann (2003). "Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India". South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 203.
- ^ Peterson, John (2017). "The prehistorical spread of Austro-Asiatic in South Asia Archived 11 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine". Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.
- ISSN 2196-078X.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Tharuic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kuswaric". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Chinali–Lahul Lohar". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301–17
- ^ Parpola, Asko (2015). The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and The Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 9781135797119.
- ISBN 978-1-134-90352-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4614-1137-6.
- ISBN 978-0-13-080180-7.
... Hindustani is the basis for both languages ...
- ^ "Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values". South Asian Voice. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
- ^ "Hindi/Urdu Language Instruction". University of California, Davis. Archived from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
- ^ "Ethnologue Report for Hindi". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
- ISBN 978-9027283252.
- ^ *Matras, Y. (2012). A grammar of Domari. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton (Mouton Grammar Library).
- ^ "History of the Romani language". Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
- ^ "GYPSY ii. Gypsy Dialects – Encyclopaedia Iranica". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015. Encyclopædia Iranica
- ^ Tiwari, Bholanath (1970). Tajuzbeki. National Publishing House.
- ^ "Romani (subgroup)". SIL International. n.d. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
- ^ Masica (1991:94–95)
- ^ Cardona & Jain (2003), p. 932.
- ^ In Sanskrit, probably /cɕ/ is a more correct representation. Sometimes, only for representation, /c/ is also used.
- ^ Masica (1991:95–96)
- ^ Masica (1991:101–102)
- S2CID 149759441.
- ^ Gope, Amalesh; Mahanta, Shakuntala (2015). An Acoustic Analysis of Sylheti Phonemes (PDF). ICPhS 2015. Glasgow. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
- ^ Pandey, Anshuman (10 September 2010). "Proposal to Encode the Sindhi Script in ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF). Retrieved 11 November 2022.
- ^ Masica 1991, p. 57.
- ^ Masica 1991, pp. 23–27.
Further reading
- Morgenstierne, Georg. "Early Iranic Influence upon Indo-Aryan." Acta Iranica, I. série, Commemoration Cyrus. Vol. I. Hommage universel (1974): 271–279.
- John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
- Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-008-X(pbk).
- ISBN 81-7074-128-9
- Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
- Kausen, Ernst (2006). "Die Klassifikation der indogermanischen Sprachen (Microsoft Word, 133 KB)".
- Kobayashi, Masato.; & ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
- ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
- Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
- Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
- Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
- Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.
External links
- The Indo-Aryan languages, 25 October 2009
- The Indo-Aryan languages Colin P.Masica
- Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt), 7 February 2003.