Indo-Islamic architecture
Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic patrons and purposes. Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture began in earnest with the establishment of Delhi as the capital of the Ghurid dynasty in 1193.[1] Succeeding the Ghurids was the Delhi Sultanate, a series of Central Asian dynasties that consolidated much of North India, and later the Mughal Empire by the 15th century. Both of these dynasties introduced Islamic architecture and art styles from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent.[2]
The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes, and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Both types of building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome, and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture.[3]
Islamic buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to their own designs. Unlike most of the
Indo-Islamic architecture has left a large impact on modern
Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate
The best-preserved example of a mosque from the days of the infancy of Islam in South Asia is the ruined mosque at Banbhore in Sindh, Pakistan, from the year 727, from which only the plan can be deduced.[5]
The start of the
Beside it is the extremely tall Qutb Minar, a minaret or victory tower, whose original four stages reach 73 meters (with a final stage added later). Its closest comparator is the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c.1190, a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower.[8] The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns; in Delhi the shaft is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at the top of each stage.[9] In general minarets were slow to be used in India, and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist.[10]
The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236; its dome, the squinches again corbelled, is now missing, and the intricate carving has been described as having an "angular harshness", from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition.[11] Other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries.
Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer, Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later. In these the central arch is taller, in imitation of an iwan. At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.[12]
By around 1300 true domes and arches with
Tughlaq architecture
The
The Tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders, and in this and other roles employed many Hindus. They left many buildings, and a standardized dynastic style.
By this time Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high
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Possibly the first "true" arches in India; Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi
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Pavilions in the Hauz Khas Complex, Delhi
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Tomb of Sikander Lodi in the Lodi Gardens, Delhi
Pre-Mughal regional architecture
Significant regional styles developed in the independent sultanates formed when the Tughlaq empire weakened in the mid-14th century, and lasted until most were absorbed into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. The sultanates of the Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal and Kashmir are discussed below. The architecture of the Malwa and Jaunpur sultanates has also left some significant buildings.[23]
Deccan sultanates
The
Some later Bahminid royal tombs are double, with two units of the usual rectangle-with-dome form combined, one for the ruler and the other for his family,[25] as at the Haft Dombad ("Seven Domes") group of royal tombs outside Gulbarga. The Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (begun 1460s) is a large ruined madrasa "of wholly Iranian design" in Bidar founded by a chief minister, with parts decorated in glazed tiles imported by sea from Iran.[26] Outside the city the Ashtur tombs are a group of eight large domed royal tombs. These have domes which are slightly pulled in at the base,[27] predating the onion domes of Mughal architecture.
The
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Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (begun construction in the 1460s).
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Jama Mosque Gulbarga(b. 1367), pictured in 1880.
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"Double" tomb of Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah (d. 1422), in Gulbarga
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A row of Bahminid tombs at Ashtur, Bidar
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Char Kaman in Hyderabad
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Hayat Bakshi Mosque in Hyderabad
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Khairtabad Mosque
Bengal Sultanate
The Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) normally used brick as the primary construction material of large buildings, as pre-Islamic buildings had done.[28] Stone had to be imported to most of Bengal, whereas clay for bricks is plentiful. But stone was used for columns and prominent details, usually re-used from Hindu or Buddhist temples.[29] The early 15th century Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua, Malda or Adina, is often taken to be the earliest surviving square single-domed Islamic building in Bengal, the standard form of smaller mosques and mausoleums. But there is a small mosque at Molla Simla, Hooghly district, that is possibly from 1375, earlier than the mausoleum.[30] The Eklakhi Mausoleum is large and has several features that were to become common in the Bengal style, including a slightly curved cornice, large round decorative buttresses at the corners, and decoration in carved terracotta brick.[31]
These features are also seen in the
Buildings in the style are the
Both capitals of the Bengal Sultanate, first Pandua or Adina, then from 1450 Gauda or Gaur, started to be abandoned soon after the conquest of the sultanate by the Mughals in 1576, leaving many grand buildings, mostly religious. The materials from secular buildings were recycled by builders in later periods.[35] While minarets are conspicuously absent in most mosques, the Firoz Minar was built in Gauda to commemorate Bengali military victories.
The ruined Adina Mosque (1374–75) is very large, which is unusual in Bengal, with a barrel vaulted central hall flanked by hypostyle areas. It is said to be the largest mosque in the sub-continent, and modeled after the Ayvan-e Kasra of Ctesiphon, Iraq, as well as the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus.[36] The heavy rainfall in Bengal necessitated large roofed spaces, and the nine-domed mosque, which allowed a large area to be covered, was more popular there than anywhere else.[37] After the Islamic consolidation of Bengal was complete, some local features continued, especially in smaller buildings, but the Mughals used their usual style in imperial commissions.[38]
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Shat Gombuj (Sixty Dome) Mosque in Bagerhat, Bangladesh
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Interior of the Shat Gambuj Mosque
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Ruined mihrabs and arabesque inside Darasbari Mosque, 15th-century
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Terracotta arabesque on the wall of Khania Dighi Mosque, Gauda, 15th-century
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Multi-domed Pathrail Mosque, 15th-century
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Single-domed Eklakhi Mausoleum, early 15th-century
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Firoz Minar, Gauda, 1480s
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Corner tower with arabesque on Choto Sona Mosque, late 15th and early 16th centuries
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Dakhil Doorway, Gauda, 16th-century
Indo-Islamic architecture of Gujarat
The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from earlier Maru-Gurjara architecture and employed them in mihrab, roofs, doors, minarets and facades.[39] In the 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of minarets. They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad,[40] which fell down in an earthquake in 1819. This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.[41]
Under the Gujarat Sultanate, independent between 1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a prosperous regional sultanate under the rule of the Muzaffarid dynasty, who built lavishly, particularly in the capital, Ahmedabad.[42] The sultanate commissioned mosques such as the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Jama Masjid at Champaner, Jami Masjid at Khambhat, Qutbuddin Mosque, Rani Rupamati Mosque, Sarkhej Roza, Sidi Bashir Mosque, Kevada Mosque, Sidi Sayyed Mosque, Nagina Mosque and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as Teen Darwaza, Bhadra Fort and the Dada Harir Stepwell in Ahmedabad.
The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, the 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate, documents the early Islamic and pre-Mughal city that has remained without any change.[43]
Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in
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Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad (the upper parts of the minarets at the entrance now lost).
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Teen Darwaza (Three-Gate) entrance to Ahmedabad
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Sarkhej Roza complex, Ahmedabad
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Sidi Bashir Mosque, Ahmedabad
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Jali at the Sidi Sayyid Mosque
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Bhadra Fort, Ahmedabad
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Dada Harir Stepwell, Ahmedabad
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Interior of Jami Mosque, Khambhat
Kashmir
By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the Shah Mir dynasty established a sultanate encompassing the region of Kashmir (consisting of modern-day Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, and Aksai Chin), allowing for the gradual Islamization of the region and the hybridization of Persianate culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of Kashmir.
In the capital at Srinagar in modern Indian-administered Kashmir, Sikandar Shah Mir (died 1413) constructed the Jamia Masjid, a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates elements of Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden Khanqah-e-Moulah mosque. Also in Srinagar are the Aali Masjid and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. Two 14th-century wooden mosques in Gilgit-Baltistan are the Chaqchan Mosque in Khaplu (1370) and the Amburiq Mosque in Shigar. Both have stone-built cores with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in an adaptation of traditional local styles.
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Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, Kashmir.
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Interior of the Jamia Masjid.
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Khanqah-e-Moula in Srinagar, Kashmir
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Tomb of Zain-ul-Abedin's mother in Srinagar, Kashmir.
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Chaqchan Mosque in Khaplu, Gilgit-Baltistan
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Amburiq Mosque in Gilgit-Baltistan.
Mughal architecture
The Mughal Empire, an Islamic empire that lasted in India from 1526 to 1857 left a mark on Indian architecture that was a mix of Islamic, Persian, Arabic, Central Asian and native Indian architecture. A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings and courtyards. Akbar, who ruled in the 16th century, made major contributions to Mughal architecture. He systematically designed forts and towns in similar symmetrical styles that blended Indian styles with outside influences. The gate of a fort Akbar designed at Agra exhibits the Assyrian gryphon, Indian elephants, and birds.[44]
During the
Later Mughal architecture, built under Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707), include the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore and Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad. By the late 18th century the style was effectively over. However, by this time versions of Mughal style, often called "post-Mughal", had been widely adopted by the rulers of the princely states and other wealthy people of all religions for their palaces and, where appropriate, tombs. Hindu patrons often mixed aspects of Hindu temple architecture and traditional Hindu palace architecture with Mughal elements and, later, European ones.[46]
Major examples of Mughal architecture include:
- Tombs:
- Forts: Red Fort, Lahore Fort, Agra Fort and Idrakpur Fort
- Mosques: Badshahi Masjid and Moti Masjid
- Gardens: Shalimar Gardens, Bagh-e-Babur and Verinag Garden
- Caravansaries: Akbari Sarai and Bara Katra
- Bridges: Mughal Bridge, Athpullah and Barapullah
- Milemarkers: Kos Minar
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The use of elephant-shaped column brackets in buildings of the Lahore Fort reflects Hindu influences on Mughal Architecture during the reign of Akbar.
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The Darwaza-i-Rauza (Great Gate) of the Taj Mahal.
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Jama Masjid, Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India.
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Tomb of Nithar Begum atAllahabad, India.
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Azam Shahfor his mother.
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Badshahi mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, late Mughal, built 1673–1674.
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One of the Tombs of Ustad-Shagird, Nakodar, India.
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Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, Pakistan
Taj Mahal
The best known example of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal. It was built as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Shah Jahan, who died in 1631. The main ideas and themes of garden tombs had already been explored by earlier Mughal emperors, and this was the culmination of all those previous works into a national landmark. The 171 meter white tomb rises above a reflecting pool, within a large walled garden.
Red Fort
The
Post-Mughal Islamic architecture
Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire after the Mughal-Maratha Wars, the emergence of the
In Awadh (encompassing modern eastern Uttar Pradesh), Lucknow emerged as a centre of Ganga-Jamuni culture and Urdu/Hindustani literature. The Nawabs of Awadh sponsored the construction of architectural masterpieces such as Bara Imambara, Rumi Darwaza, Chota Imambara, Sikandar Bagh and Ghantaghar in Lucknow, as well as Gulab Bari and Bahu Begum ka Maqbara in Faizabad.
In Hyderabad, the
The so-called
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See also
- Architecture of India
- Pakistani architecture
- Architecture of Bangladesh
- History of domes in South Asia
Notes
- ^ Harle, 423-424
- ^ Yale, 164-165
- ^ Harle, 421, 425; Yale, 165; Blair & Bloom, 149
- ^ Harle, 424; Yale, 165
- ^ Port of Banbhore, UNESCO Tentative list; Yale, 28-29
- ^ Harle, 423-424
- ^ Yale, 164-165; Harle, 423-424; Blair & Bloom, 149
- ^ Also two huge minarets at Ghazni.
- ^ Yale, 164; Harle, 424 (quoted); Blair & Bloom, 149
- ^ Harle, 429
- ^ Yale, 164 (quoted); Harle, 425
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 149-150; Harle, 425
- ^ Harle, 425
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 151
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 151-156; Harle, 425-426
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 151
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 154; Harle, 425
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 154-156
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 154-156; Harle, 425
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 149
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 156
- ^ Harle, 426; Blair & Bloom, 156
- ^ Harle, 431-432
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 156; Harle, 433
- ^ Harle, 433
- ^ Harle, 433
- ^ Harle, 433
- ^ Banglapedia
- ^ Brown, XXIX; Hasan, 34-35; Harle, 428
- ^ Hasan, 35-39
- ^ Hasan, 36-37; Harle, 428
- ^ Hasan, 23-25
- ^ Hasan, 41-44
- ^ Hasan, 44-49
- ^ Banglapedia
- ^ "BENGAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2019-07-15.
- ^ Hasan, 35-36, 39
- ^ Banglapedia
- JSTOR 25769695.
- ^ "The Shaking Minarets at Ahmedabad, drawn in 1809", British Library
- ^ Harle, 429-430
- ^ "Historic City of Ahmadabad". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2019-09-03. Retrieved 2019-09-26.
- ^ "Champaner-Pavagadh". Worldheritagesite.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
- ISBN 0-500-27624-2.
- ISBN 1850659168p 63
- ^ Harle, 443-444
References
- "Banglapedia": "Architecture" in Banglapedia
- Blair, Sheila, and Bloom, Jonathan M., The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250-1800, 1995, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300064659
- ISBN 9781447494829, google books
- Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
- Hasan, Perween, Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh, 2007, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1845113810, 9781845113810, google books
- "Yale":Richard Ettinghausen, ISBN 9780300088694
Further reading
- Michell, George; Zebrowski, Mark (1999). Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. I.8. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University in Bijapur Press. ISBN 0-521-56321-6. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
External links
- Characteristics of Indo-Islamic architecture at Archaeological Survey of India
- Islamic Architecture in India in the Introduction to Islamic Architecture