Languages of Indonesia

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Languages of Indonesia
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  • Tamil
    • SignedIndonesian Sign Language
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    More than 700 living languages are spoken in Indonesia.[1] This figure indicates that Indonesia has about 10% of the world's languages,[2] establishing its reputation as the second most linguistically diverse nation in the world after Papua New Guinea.[3] Most languages belong to the Austronesian language family, while there are over 270 Papuan languages spoken in eastern Indonesia.[4] The language most widely spoken as a native language is Javanese.

    Languages in Indonesia are classified into nine categories:

    sign languages.[5][6]

    National language

    The official language of Indonesia is

    speak other languages, such as Javanese, as their first language.[1] This makes plurilingualism a norm in Indonesia.[12]

    Indigenous languages and regional lingua francas

    The major ethno-linguistic groups within Indonesia

    Indonesia recognizes only a single national language, and indigenous languages are recognized at the regional level, although policies vary from one region to another. For example, in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, the Javanese language is the region's official language along with Indonesian.[13] Javanese is the most spoken indigenous language, with native speakers constituting 31.8% of the total population of Indonesia (as of 2010).[14] Javanese speakers are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java, and there are also sizable numbers in most provinces. The next most widely spoken regional languages in the country are Sundanese, local Malay, Madurese and Minangkabau. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[15]

    There are hundreds of indigenous languages spoken in Indonesia. Most of them are locally used indigenous languages,

    Ambon Malay, Banjarese and Papuan Malay. The latter refers to regional lingua francas that are not associated with Malay or Indonesian, including Biak, Iban and Onin.[17][4][page needed][a]

    Foreign languages

    As early as the seventh century AD, the natives of the archipelago began an intense period of trade with people from

    Hakka, and Mandarin are the most common heritage languages. Tamil is also spoken among majority of Indians in the country. A small number of heritage language speakers speak Arabic and Dutch.[18]

    Dutch

    Further information: Dutch language § Asia
    The use of Dutch, Javanese and Malay in Java, Dutch East Indies

    Despite the Dutch presence in

    law codes are still only available in Dutch.[21]

    English

    English has historically been categorized as the first

    additional language. Meanwhile, Zein argues that English in Indonesia is best categorized as a lingua franca,[23] an argument parallel with Kirkpatrick's contention on the use of English as a lingua franca in the broader ASEAN context.[25]

    Other languages

    Other languages, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Portuguese and Spanish, are non-native to Indonesia. These languages are included in the educational curriculum and may be categorized as either foreign or additional languages, depending on the instrumental function of the languages, length and types of exposure, as well as the wide-ranging motivations of the speakers or learners who use and or learn them.[26]

    Endangered languages

    Main article: List of endangered languages in Indonesia

    There are 726 languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago in 2009 (dropped from 742 languages in 2007), the second largest multilingual population in the world after

    Summer Institute of Linguistics), 63 languages are dying (shown in red on the bar chart, subdivided into Moribund and Nearly Extinct, or Dormant), which is defined as "The only fluent users (if any) are older than child-bearing age."[28]

    Language policy

    In January 2013, Indonesia's then minister of education and culture, Muhammad Nuh, affirmed that the teaching of local languages as school subjects would be part of the national education curriculum. Muhammad stated that much of the public worry about the teaching of local languages being left out of the curriculum is misplaced, and that the new curriculum will be conveyed to them.[clarification needed][29]

    Languages by speakers

    Main articles: List of languages by number of native speakers in Indonesia and List of languages by total number of speakers in Indonesia

    The population numbers given below are of

    native speakers
    , excepting the figure for Indonesian, which counts its total speakers. The total population of the country was 237.6 million in 2010.

    Largest languages in Indonesia[30]
    Language Number
    (millions)     		% of total
    population     		Branch Year surveyed Main areas where spoken
    Indonesian 210 80.42 Malayic 2010 Throughout Indonesia
    Javanese 84.3 32.28 Javanese 2000 (census) Throughout
    Kalimantan
    islands.
    Sundanese 42.0 16.08 Sundanese 2016 West Java, Banten, Jakarta
    Madurese 13.6 5.21 Madurese 2000 (census) Madura Island (East Java)
    Minangkabau 5.5 2.11 Malayic 2007 West Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, Bengkulu, Jakarta
    Buginese 5.0 1.91 South Sulawesi 2000 (census) South Sulawesi
    Palembang Malay[31] 3.9 1.49 Malayic 2000 (census) South Sumatra
    Banjarese
    		 3.5 1.34 Malayic 2000 (census) South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan
    Acehnese 3.5 1.34 Chamic 2000 (census) Aceh
    Balinese 3.3 1.26
    Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa
    		 2000 (census) Bali Island and Lombok Island
    Betawi 2.7 1.03
    Malay-based creole
    		 1993 Jakarta
    Sasak 2.1 0.80 Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa 1989 Lombok Island (West Nusa Tenggara)
    Batak Toba 2.0 0.77 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 1991 North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands, Jakarta
    Ambonese Malay 1.9 0.73 Malay-based creole 1987 Maluku
    Makassarese 2.1 0.80 South Sulawesi 2000 (census) South Sulawesi
    Chinese-Min Nan
    		 1.3 0.50 Sinitic (Min Nan) 2000 North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands, West Kalimantan
    Batak Dairi
    		 1.2 0.46 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 1991 North Sumatra
    Batak Simalungun 1.2 0.46 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 2000 (census) North Sumatra
    Batak Mandailing 1.1 0.42 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 2000 (census) North Sumatra
    Jambi Malay 1.0 0.38 Malayic 2000 (census) Jambi
    Gorontalo 1.0 0.38 Philippine 2000 (census)
    Gorontalo (province)
    Ngaju Dayak 0.9 0.34 West Barito 2003 Central Kalimantan
    Nias 0.8 0.31 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 2000 (census)
    Nias Island, North Sumatra
    Batak Angkola
    		 0.7 0.27 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 1991 North Sumatra
    Manado Malay 0.8 0.31 Malay-based creole 2001 North Sulawesi
    North Moluccan Malay 0.7 0.27 Malay-based creole 2001 North Maluku
    Chinese-Hakka 0.6 0.23 Sinitic 1982
    Bangka Belitung, Riau Islands and West Kalimantan
    Batak Karo 0.6 0.23 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 1991 North Sumatra
    Uab Meto
    		 0.6 0.23
    Timor-Babar
    		 1997 West Timor (East Nusa Tenggara)
    Bima 0.5 0.19 Bima 1989
    Sumbawa Island (West Nusa Tenggara
    )
    Manggarai
    		 0.5 0.19
    Sumba-Flores
    		 1989 Flores Island (East Nusa Tenggara)
    Toraja-Sa’dan
    		 0.5 0.19 South Sulawesi 1990 South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi
    Komering 0.5 0.19
    Lampungic
    		 2000 (census) South Sumatra
    Tetum 0.4 0.15 Timor-Babar 2004 West Timor (East Nusa Tenggara)
    Rejang
    		 0.4 0.15 Land Dayak 2000 (census) Bengkulu
    Muna 0.3 0.11 Muna–Buton 1989 Southeast Sulawesi
    Sumbawa 0.3 0.11 Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa 1989
    Sumbawa Island (West Nusa Tenggara
    )
    Bangka Malay 0.3 0.11 Malayic 2000 (census)
    Bangka Belitung
    )
    Osing
    		 0.3 0.11 Javanese 2000 (census) East Java
    Gayo 0.3 0.11 Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands 2000 (census) Aceh
    Chinese-Cantonese 0.3 0.11 Sinitic (Yue) 2000
    North Sumatera, Riau Islands, Jakarta
    Tolaki 0.3 0.11 Celebic 1991 Southeast Sulawesi
    Tae’
    		 0.3 0.11 South Sulawesi 1992 South Sulawesi

    Languages by family

    Several prominent languages spoken in Indonesia sorted by language family are:

    There are many additional small families and isolates among the Papuan languages.

    Below is a full list of Papuan language families spoken in Indonesia, following Palmer, et al. (2018):[35]

    1. Trans-New Guinea
      1. Ok-Oksapmin (also in Papua New Guinea)
      2. Dani
      3. Asmat-Kamoro
      4. Mek
      5. Paniai Lakes
      6. West Bomberai
      7. Somahai
      8. Anim (also in Papua New Guinea)
      9. Greater Awyu
      10. Kayagaric
      11. Kolopom
      12. Marori
    2. Timor-Alor-Pantar
    3. North Halmahera
    4. Tambora†
    5. Nuclear South Bird's Head
    6. Inanwatan–Duriankere
    7. Konda–Yahadian
    8. Nuclear East Bird's Head
    9. Hatam–Mansim
    10. West Bird's Head
    11. Abun
    12. Mpur
    13. Maybrat
    14. Mor
    15. Tanah Merah
    16. Tor-Kwerba
    17. Lakes Plain
    18. Border (also in Papua New Guinea)
    19. Sko (also in Papua New Guinea)
    20. East Cenderawasih Bay
    21. Yam (also in Papua New Guinea)
    22. Komolom
    23. Yelmek-Maklew
    24. Eastern Pauwasi
      (also in Papua New Guinea)
    25. Western Pauwasi
    26. Nimboran
    27. Sentani
    28. Mairasi
    29. Kaure
    30. Lepki-Murkim
    31. Senagi (Angor-Dera) (also in Papua New Guinea)
    32. Tofanma-Namla
    33. Yapen
    34. Abinomn
    35. Burmeso
    36. Elseng
    37. Kapauri
    38. Kembra
    39. Keuw
    40. Kimki
    41. Massep
    42. Mawes
    43. Molof
    44. Usku
    45. Yetfa
    46. Bayono-Awbono
    47. Dem
    48. Uhunduni

    Sign languages

    There are at least 2.5 million sign language users across the country, although official report only shows less than 50,000.[36] Sign language users are often ridiculed and stigmatized.[37]

    Writing system

    Indonesian languages are generally not rendered in native-invented systems, but in scripts devised by speakers of other languages, that is,

    pegon
    that incorporates Javanese sounds, and in the Latin script.

    Chinese characters have never been used to write Indonesian languages, although Indonesian place-names, personal names, and names of trade goods appear in reports and histories written for China's imperial courts.[38]

    List of writing systems

    Sample text

    The following texts are translations of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the languages of Indonesia.

    • Dutch (Nederlands)

    Alle mensen worden vrij en gelijk in waardigheid en rechten geboren, ze zijn begiftigd met rede en geweten en behoren tegenover elkaar te handelen in een geest van broederschap.

    • Chinese (中文)

    人人生而自由,在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心,并应以兄弟关系的精神互相对待。

    Rénrén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé quánlì shàng yīlù píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén hùxiāng duìdài.

    • English

    All people are born free and have the same dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should associate with each other in a spirit of brotherhood.

    • Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia)

    Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.

    • Javanese (Basa Jawa)

    Sabên manungsa kalairake mardika lan darbe martabat lan hak-hak kang padha. Kabeh pinaringan akal lan kalbu sarta kaajab anggone pasrawungan mêmitran siji lan liyane tansah ngugemi jiwa paseduluran.

    • Malay (Bahasa Melayu)

    Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan samarata dari segi kemuliaan dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.

    • Minangkabau (Baso Minangkabau)

    Sadonyo manusia dilahiakan mardeka dan punyo martabat sarato hak-hak nan samo. Mareka dikaruniai aka jo hati nurani, supayo satu samo lain bagaul sarupo urang badunsanak.

    • Buginese (Basa Ugi)

    Sininna rupa tau ri jajiangngi rilinoe nappunnai manengngi riasengnge alebbireng. Nappunai riasengnge akkaleng, nappunai riasengnge ati marennni na sibole bolena pada sipakatau pada massalasureng.

    • Balinese (Basa Bali)

    Sami manusane sane nyruwadi wantah merdeka tur maduwe kautamaan lan hak-hak sane pateh. Sami kalugrain papineh lan idep tur mangdane pada masawitra melarapan semangat pakulawargaan.

    • Sundanese (Basa Sunda)

    Sakumna jalma gubrag ka alam dunya téh sipatna merdika jeung boga martabat katut hak-hak anu sarua. Maranéhna dibéré akal jeung haté nurani, campur-gaul jeung sasamana aya dina sumanget duduluran.

    • Madurese (Basa Madura)

    Sadajana oreng lahir mardika e sarenge drajat klaban hak-hak se dha-padha. Sadajana eparenge akal sareng nurani ban kodu areng-sareng akanca kadi taretan.

    • Musi (Baso Pelembang)

    Galo-galo uwong dari lahirnyo bebas, samorato martabat jugo hak-haknyo. Wong dienjuk utak samo raso ati, kendaknyo tu begaul sesamo manusio pecak wong sedulur.

    • Acehnese (Bahsa Acèh)

    Bandum ureuëng lahé deungon meurdéhka, dan deungon martabat dan hak njang saban. Ngon akai geuseumiké, ngon haté geumeurasa, bandum geutanjoë lagèë sjèëdara.

    • Tetum (Lia-Tetun)

    Ema hotu hotu moris hanesan ho dignidade ho direitu. Sira hotu iha hanoin, konsiensia n'e duni tenki hare malu hanesan espiritu maun-alin.

    • Dawan (Uab Metô)

    Atoni ma bife ok-okê mahonis kamafutû ma nmuî upan ma hak namnés. Sin napein tenab ma nekmeü ma sin musti nabai es nok es onlê olif-tataf.

    Kanan mansian mahonis merdeka ma nok upan ma hak papmesê. Sin naheun nok tenab ma nekmeû ma sin es nok es musti nfain onlê olif-tataf.

    • Banjar (Bahasa Banjar)

    Sabarataan manusia diranakakan bibas mardika wan ba'isi martabat lawan jua ba'isi hak-hak nang sama. Bubuhannya sabarataan dibari'i akal wan jua pangrasa hati nurani, supaya samunyaan urang antara sa'ikung lawan sa'ikung bapatutan nangkaya urang badangsanakan.

    • Lampung (Bahasa Lampung)

    Unyin Jelema dilaheʁko merdeka jama wat pi'il ʁik hak sai gokgoh. Tiyan dikaruniako akal jama hati nurani maʁai unggal tiyan dapok nengah nyampoʁ dilom semangat muaʁiyan.

    • Rejang (Baso Jang)

    Kutê tun laher mêrdeka, tmuan hok-hok gik srai. Kutê nagiak-ba akêa peker ngen atêi, kêrno o kêlok-nê bêkuat-ba do ngen luyên lêm asai sêpasuak.

    • Bengkulu Malay (Bahaso Melayu Bengkulu)

    Segalo orang dilahirkan merdeka kek punyo martabat kek hak-hak yang samo. Tobonyo dikasi akal kek hati nurani supayo bekawan dalam raso cak orang besanak.

    Comparison chart

    Below is a chart of several Indonesian languages. All of them except for Galela belong to the Austronesian language family. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified as languages and which ones should be classified as dialects, the chart confirms that many have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. The languages are arranged geographically.

    English one two three four water person house dog cat coconut day new we, us what and
    Dutch een twee drie vier water mensen thuis hond kat kokosnoot dag nieuw ons wat en
    Chinese 一 (yī) 二 (èr) 三 (sān) 四 (sì) 水 (shuǐ) 人 (rén) 房子 (fángzi) 狗 (gǒu) 猫 (māo) 椰子 (yēzi) 天 (tiān) 新的 (xīnde) 我们 (wǒmen) 什么 (shénme) 和 (hé)
    Indonesian satu dua tiga empat air orang rumah anjing kucing kelapa hari baru kita apa dan
    Minangkabau cie' duo tigo ampe' aie urang rumah anjiang kuciang karambia hari baru awak apo jo
    Palembang Malay sikok duo tigo empat banyu wong rumah anjing kucing kelapo ari baru kito apo dan
    Betawi atu' dué tigé empat aér orang ruméh anjing kucing kelapé ari baru kité apé amé
    Banjarese
    		 asa dua talu ampat banyu urang rumah hadupan batingas nyiur hari hanyar kita apa wan
    Kutainese satu due tige empat ranam urang rumah koyok nyiur hari beru etam apa dengan
    Manado Malay satu dua tiga ampa aer orang ruma anjing kucing kalapa hari baru torang apa deng
    Ambonese Malay satu dua tiga ampa air orang ruma anjing kucing kalapa hari baru katong apa dan
    Acehnese sa dua lhèë peuët ië ureuëng rumoh asèë miong / miei u uroë ban geutanyoë peuë ngon
    Nias sara dua tölu öfa idanö niha omo asu mao banio luo bohou ya'ita hadia ba
    Toba Batak sada dua tolu opat aek halak jabu biang huting harambiri ari ibbaru hita aha dohot
    Mandailing Batak sada dua tolu opat aek halak bagas asu arambir ari baru hita aha dohot
    Lampung say ʁuwa telu ampat way jelema nuwa asu kucing nyiwi ʁani ampai ʁam api jama
    Komering osai rua tolu opak uway jolma lombahan asu kucing nyiwi harani ompai/anyar ram/kita apiya rik
    Rejang
    (of Lebong dialect)     		do duai tlau pat bioa tun
    manusio     		umêak kuyuk kucing nioa bilai blau itê jano, gen ngen, magêa
    Sundanese hiji dua tilu opat cai/ci jalma imah anjing ucing kalapa poé anyar urang naon jeung
    Javanese siji loro têlu[39] papat banyu uwòng[39] omah asu kucing kambìl[39] dinå[39] anyar/énggal[39] adhéwé[39] åpå[39]/anu lan
    Madurese settong dhuwa' tello' empa' âêng oreng roma pate' kochèng nyior are anyar sengko apa bèn
    Balinese besik dadua telu papat yéh jadma umah cicing/kuluk méong nyuh rahina mara iraga apa muah/lan
    Sasak sa/seke' due telu mpat aik dengan bale acong/basong kenyamen/nyioh jelo baru ite ape dait
    Bima ica dua tolu upa oi dou uma lako ngao ni'u nai bou nami au labo
    Ngaju Dayak ije' due' telu' epat danum uluh huma' asu posa enyuh andau taheta itah narai tuntang
    Kenyah Dayak[40]
    		 sé dué telew pat sungai kelunan / klunan lamin / uma' asew séang nyo dau maring mé' tew / teleu inew ngan
    Buginese seqdi dua tellu eppa je'ne' tau bola asu coki kaluku esso ma-baru idiq aga na
    Makassarese se're rua tallu appa' je'ne' tau balla' kongkong ngeong kaluku allo beru ikatte apa na
    Mongondow tobatú doyowa toḷu opat tubig intau baḷoi ungkú pinggó bangó singgai mo-bagu kita onu bo
    Tolaki o'aso o'ruo o'tolu o'omba iwoi toono laika odahu kaluku oleo wuohu inggito ohawo ronga
    Galela moi sinoto sa'ange iha ake nyawa tahu kaso igo wange ḋamomuane ngone okia de
    Biak oser/eser suru kyor fyak war snon/kawasa rum naf/rofan pus sray ras babo ko sa ma/kuker
    Tetum ida rua tolu haat bee ema uma asu busa nuu loron foun ami ne'ebé no

    See also

    Notes

    1. ^ Zein's definition of "Malayic" RLFs should not be confused with the genealogical Malayic subgroup of Malayo-Polynesian languages. The genealogical Malayic subgroup also includes languages that are listed by Zein as "non-Malayic" RLFs, such as Iban and Musi.

    References

    Citations

    1. ^ a b Lewis, M. Paul (2009), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16th ed.), SIL International, retrieved 17 November 2009
    2. ^ Florey 2010, pp. 121–140.
    3. ^ "What Countries Have the Most Languages?". Ethnologue. 22 May 2019. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
    4. ^ a b c Simons & Fennig 2018.
    5. ^ Zein 2020, pp. 27–63.
    6. ^ "Indonesia". The World Factbook. CIA. 29 October 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
    7. ^ Article 36 of The 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia  – via Wikisource.
    8. ^ Sneddon, James (2003). The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: University of South Wales Press.
    9. ^ Yee, Danny (2013). "Review of The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society". Danny Yee's Book Reviews (Book review). Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
    10. doi:10.3406/arch.1976.1296
      – via Persée.
    11. ^ Ivana Amerl (May 2006). "Halo Bos! English Borrowings in Indonesian". MED Magazine. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
    12. ^ a b Zein 2020, p. 18.
    13. ^ Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 (in Indonesian) – via Wikisource bahasa Indonesia.
    14. ISBN 978-979-064-417-5. Archived
      (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015.
    15. ^ Ricklefs 1991, p. 256.
    16. ^ Zein 2020, pp. 39–40.
    17. ^ Zein 2020, pp. 34–41.
    18. ^ Zein 2020, pp. 41–43.
    19. ^ Baker & Jones 1998, p. 302.
    20. ISBN 9783110184181
      .
    21. ISBN 0-19-823869-X
      .
    22. ^ Dardjowidjojo, S. (2000). "English teaching in Indonesia". English Australia. 18 (1): 22–30.
    23. ^ a b Zein 2018, pp. 21–40.
    24. doi:10.1111/j.1467-971X.1991.tb00146.x
      .
    25. ISBN 9789888028788
      .
    26. ^ Zein 2020, pp. 44–45.
    27. ^ "Berapa Jumlah Bahasa Daerah di Indonesia?" [How many regional languages in Indonesia?]. Liputan6.com (in Indonesian). 30 October 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
    28. ^ "Indonesia - Status". Ethnologue.
    29. ^ "Pelajaran bahasa daerah tetap ada" [Regional language lessons remain]. antaranews.com (in Indonesian). 6 January 2013.
    30. ^ "Indonesia". Ethnologue.
    31. ^ Muhadjir, ed. (2000). Bahasa Betawi: Sejarah dan Perkembangannya. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. p. 13.
    32. ^ Daniswari, Dini, ed. (12 May 2022). "Mengapa di Lampung Banyak Orang Jawa? Halaman all". KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). Kompas Cyber Media. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
    33. ^ Sushmita, Chelin Indra (13 May 2022). "Kenapa di Lampung Banyak Orang Jawa?". Solopos.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 18 January 2023.
    34. ^ Wiyardi, Rudy (18 March 2021). "Kenapa di Lampung Banyak Penutur Bahasa Jawa?". KOMPASIANA (in Indonesian). Kompasiana.com. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
    35. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7
      .
    36. ^ Zein 2020, p. 43.
    37. ^ Palfreyman, Nick (2015). Sign language varieties of Indonesia: A linguistic and sociolinguistic investigation (PhD thesis). Lancashire, the UK: University of Central Lancashire.
    38. ^ Taylor 2003, p. 29.
    39. ^ a b c d e f g Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, 2013
    40. ^ Smith, Alexander D. (2017). The Languages of Borneo: A Comprehensive Classification (Ph.D. Dissertation thesis). University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa.

    Bibliography

    External links

    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Languages of Indonesia.
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