Indus script
Indus script | |
---|---|
Script type | Undeciphered;
possibly Bronze Age writing or proto-writing |
Time period | c. 3500–1900 BCE[1][2][a] |
Direction | Right-to-left script, boustrophedon |
Languages | Unknown (see Harappan language) |
ISO 15924 | |
ISO 15924 | Inds (610), Indus (Harappan) |
The Indus script, also known as the Harappan script and the Indus Valley Script, is a corpus of symbols produced by the
The first publication of a seal with Harappan symbols dates to 1875,[6] in a drawing by Alexander Cunningham.[7] By 1992, an estimated 4,000 inscribed objects had been discovered,[8] some as far afield as Mesopotamia due to existing Indus–Mesopotamia relations, with over 400 distinct signs represented across known inscriptions.[9][5]
Some scholars, such as G. R. Hunter,[10] S. R. Rao, John Newberry,[11] and Krishna Rao[12] have argued that the Brahmi script has some connection with the Indus system. Raymond Allchin[13] has somewhat cautiously supported the possibility of the Brahmi script being influenced by the Indus script.[14][15] Another possibility for the continuity of the Indus tradition is in the megalithic graffiti symbols of southern and central India and Sri Lanka, which probably do not constitute a linguistic script but may have some overlap with the Indus symbol inventory.[16][17] Linguists such as Iravatham Mahadevan, Kamil Zvelebil, and Asko Parpola have argued that the script had a relation to a Dravidian language.[18][19]
Corpus
By 1977 at least 2,906 inscribed objects with legible inscriptions had been discovered,
Early Harappan
Early examples of the Indus script have been found on pottery inscriptions and clay impressions of inscribed Harappan seals dating to around c. 2800–2600 BCE during the
Mature Harappan
In the
Late Harappan
The
Post-Harappan
Numerous artefacts, particularly potsherds and tools, bearing markings inscribed into them have been found in Central India, South India, and Sri Lanka dating to the
Characteristics
The characters are largely pictorial, depicting objects found in the ancient world generally, found locally in Harappan culture, or derived from the natural world.[39] However, many abstract signs have also been identified. Some signs are compounds of simpler pictorial signs, while others are not known to occur in isolation, being known only to occur as components of more complex signs.[39] Some signs resemble tally marks and are often interpreted as early numerals.[40][41][42]
Number and frequency
The number of principal signs is over 400, which is considered too large a number for each character to be a phonogram, and so the script is generally believed to be logo-syllabic.[43][44][5] The precise total number of signs is uncertain, as there is disagreement concerning whether particular signs are distinct or variants of the same sign.[44][5] In the 1970s, the Indian epigrapher Iravatham Mahadevan published a corpus and concordance of Indus inscriptions listing 419 distinct signs in specific patterns.[45][g] However, in 2015, the archaeologist and epigrapher Bryan Wells estimated that were around 694 distinct signs.[46]
Of the signs identified by Mahadevan, 113 are hapax legomena, 47 occur only twice, and 59 occur fewer than five times.[44] Just 67 signs account for 80 percent of usage across the corpus of Indus symbols.[47] The most frequently used sign is the "jar" sign,[47] identified by Parpola as 'sign 311'.[37]
Writing direction
Most scholars agree that the Indus script was generally read from
Relationship to other scripts
Some researchers have sought to establish a relationship between the Indus script and
Comparisons with Brahmi
Researchers have compared the Indus valley script to the
Comparisons with Proto-Elamite
Researchers have also compared the Indus valley script with the Proto-Elamite script used in Elam, an ancient Pre-Iranian civilisation that was contemporaneous with the Indus Valley civilisation. Their respective scripts were contemporary to each other, and both were largely pictographic.[61] About 35 Proto-Elamite signs may possibly be comparable to Indus signs.[54] Writing in 1932, G. R. Hunter argued, against the view of Stephen Langdon, that the number of resemblances "seem to be too close to be explained by coincidence".[62]
Theories and attempts at decipherment
Decipherability
The following factors are usually regarded as the biggest obstacles to successful decipherment:
- Inscriptions are very short. The average length of the inscriptions is around five signs,[64] and the longest only 34 characters long, found on a copper plate belonging to the mature Harappan period.[63] Inscriptions vary between just one and seven lines, with single lines being most common.[65]
- There are doubts whether the Indus script records a written language or is instead a system of non-linguistic signs or accounting tokens and numerical clay tablets of Mesopotamia.[43] Due to the brevity of inscriptions, some researchers have questioned whether Indus symbols are even capable of expressing a spoken language.[5]
- The spoken
- No bilingual texts, like the Rosetta Stone, have been found.[5]
- No names, such as those of Indus rulers or personages, are known to be attested in surviving historical records or myths, as was the case with rulers like Rameses and Ptolemy, who were known to
Over the years, numerous decipherments have been proposed, but there is no established scholarly consensus.[43][68] The few points on which there exists scholarly consensus are the right-to-left direction of the majority of the inscriptions,[41][5] numerical nature of certain stroke-like signs,[41][5] functional homogeneity of certain terminal signs,[41] and some generally adopted techniques of segmenting the inscriptions into initial, medial, and terminal clusters.[41] Over 100 (mutually exclusive) attempts at decipherment have been published since the 1920s,[69][5] and the topic is popular among amateur researchers.[l]
Dravidian language
Although no clear consensus has been established, there are those who argue that the Indus script recorded a
Based on computer analysis,[72] the Russian scholar Yuri Knorozov suggested that a Dravidian language is the most likely candidate for the underlying language of the script.[73] The Finnish scholar Asko Parpola led a Finnish team in the 1960s–80s that, like Knorozov's Soviet team, worked towards investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Parpola similarly concluded that the Indus script and Harappan language "most likely belonged to the Dravidian family".[74] A comprehensive description of Parpola's work up to 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script.[72] Supporting this work, the archaeologist Walter Fairservis argued that Indus script text on seals could be read as names, titles, or occupations, and suggested that the animals depicted were totems indicating kinship or possibly clans.[43][75][76] The computational linguist Rajesh P. N. Rao, along with a team of colleagues, performed an independent computational analysis and concluded that the Indus script has the structure of a written language, supporting prior evidence for syntactic structure in the Indus script, and noting that the Indus script appears to have a similar conditional entropy to Old Tamil.[77][78]
These scholars have proposed readings of many signs; one such reading was legitimised when the Dravidian
In his 2014 publication Dravidian Proof of the Indus Script via The Rig Veda: A Case Study, the epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan identified a recurring sequence of four signs which he interpreted as an early Dravidian phrase translated as "Merchant of the City".[82] Commenting on his 2014 publication, he stressed that he had not fully deciphered the Indus script, although he felt his effort had "attained the level of proof" with regards to demonstrating that the Indus script was a Dravidian written language.[83]
Non-Dravidian languages
Indo-Aryan language
Perhaps the most influential proponent of the hypothesis that the Indus script records an early
S. R. Rao's interpretation helped to bolster
Linguist Steven Bonta hypothesizes that the language encoded in the Indus script is Indo-Aryan based on the analysis that the internal patterning of the script provides strong evidence of excessive
Munda language
A less popular hypothesis suggests that the Indus script belongs to the Munda family of languages. This language family is spoken largely in central and eastern India, and is related to some Southeast Asian languages. However, much like the Indo-Aryan language, the reconstructed vocabulary of early Munda does not reflect the Harappan culture,[90] therefore, its candidacy for being the language of the Indus Civilisation is dim.[91]
Non-linguistic signs
An opposing hypothesis is that these symbols are nonlinguistic signs which symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts, and are similar to components of
Controversy
Asko Parpola, reviewing the Farmer et al. thesis in 2005, stated that their arguments "can be easily controverted".[94] He cited the presence of a large number of rare signs in Chinese and emphasised there was "little reason for sign repetition in short seal texts written in an early logo-syllabic script". Revisiting the question in a 2008 lecture,[95] Parpola took on each of the 10 main arguments of Farmer et al., presenting counterarguments for each.
A 2009 paper[77] published by Rajesh P. N. Rao, Iravatham Mahadevan and others in the journal Science also challenged the argument that the Indus script might have been a nonlinguistic symbol system. The paper concluded the conditional entropy of Indus inscriptions closely matched those of linguistic systems like the Sumerian logo-syllabic system, Rig Vedic Sanskrit etc., but they are careful to stress that by itself does not imply the script is linguistic. A follow-up study presented further evidence in terms of entropies of longer sequences of symbols beyond pairs.[96] However, Sproat argued there existed a number of misunderstandings in Rao et al., including a lack of discriminative power in their model, and argued that applying their model to known non-linguistic systems such as Mesopotamian deity symbols produced similar results to the Indus script. Rao et al.'s argument against Sproat's arguments and Sproat's reply were published in Computational Linguistics in December 2010.[97][78] The June 2014 issue of Language carries a paper by Sproat that provides further evidence that the methodology of Rao et al. is flawed.[98] Rao et al.'s rebuttal of Sproat's 2014 article and Sproat's response are published in the December 2015 issue of Language.[99][100]
Unicode
Designer(s) | National Fund for Mohenjo-daro |
---|---|
Date created | 2016 |
Date released | 2017 |
License | Proprietary |
The Indus symbols have been assigned the
The Indus Script Font is a
See also
- Related topics
- History
- History of ancient numeral systems
- History of India
- History of Pakistan
- History of writing
- List of languages by first written accounts
- Other similar topics
Notes
- ^ Bryant (2001), p. 178: "proto‐Indus writing on shards of pottery from the Ravi phase that are as early as 3500 B.C.E."
- ^ 1540 from Mohenjodaro, 985 from Harappa, 66 from Chanhudaro
- ^ 165 from Lothal, 99 from Kalibangan, 7 from Banawali, 6 from Ur in Iraq, 5 from Surkotada, 4 from Chandigarh
- ^ The commonly depicted "unicorn" is most likely a bull drawn in profile as to obscure one horn behind the other.[28]
- ^ 47 out of 61 signs surveyed.
- ^ 'Sign 4' is a compound of 'sign 1', depicting a person carrying two burdens, and 'sign 311', the "jar" sign. Numbering convention for the Indus script by Asko Parpola.[37] For an alternative numbering scheme, refer to Mahadevan (1977).
- ^ Mahadevan's 1977 sign list originally included 417 signs but in a late addendum to the list, he added 2 additional signs, identified in then recently discovered inscriptions, which he had not been able to include in the sign list before publishing.
- ^ Numbered according to the convention for the Indus script proposed by Asko Parpola.
- Louvre Museum, reference SB 2425.[58]
- Proto-Munda.
- ^ (..)ibra, a partial name of a king of Meluhha, a place associated with the Indus Civilisation, is briefly attested in an Akkadian inscription, but no full names are attested.
- ^ For example, see Egbert Richter and N. S. Rajaram.
- ^ Mahadevan has compared this seal to sign 7, which resembles a human figure with horns, arguing the comparison supports, among other evidence, a suggested Dravidian phonetic reading of the sign, kaṇṭh(a).[81] Numbering convention for the Indus script by Asko Parpola.
- ^ With reference to Rao (1973), chapter 10.
- ^ Given as aeka, dwi, tra, chatus, panta, happta/sapta, dasa, dvadasa, shata (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12, 100)
References
- ^ a b c d Kenoyer (2006), pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b Bryant (2001), p. 178.
- ^ a b Locklear, Mallory (25 January 2017). "Science: Machine learning could finally crack the 4,000-year-old Indus script". The Verge. Manhattan, New York, NY: Vox Media. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
After a century of failing to crack an ancient script, linguists turn to machines.
- ^ a b Possehl (1996).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Robinson (2015).
- ^ Wright (2009), p. 7.
- ^ Cunningham (1875), pp. 105–108.
- ^ a b Fairservis (1992), p. 5.
- ^ Ghosh (1990).
- ^ a b Hunter (1934).
- ^ Newberry (1980), pp. 10–20.
- ^ Ghosh (1990), p. 361–364.
- ^ Allchin & Erdosy (1995), p. 336.
- ^ Goody (1987), pp. 301–302, note 4.
- ^ Salomon (1995).
- ^ a b Mahadevan (2004).
- ^ Ray (2006), pp. 121–122.
- ^ Rahman, Tariq. "Peoples and languages in pre-Islamic Indus valley". Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
most scholars have taken the 'Dravidian hypothesis' seriously
- ^ "The Indus Script | Harappa". www.harappa.com. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
- ^ Mahadevan (1977), pp. 5–7.
- ^ a b Possehl (2002), p. 127.
- ^ Fairservis (1983).
- ^ Mukhopadhyay (2018a), p. 5–6.
- ^ Meadow & Kenoyer (2001), p. 224.
- ^ Meadow & Kenoyer (2010), p. xlviii.
- ^ Mahadevan (1977), pp. 6–7.
- ^ Singh (2008), p. 169.
- ^ Bonta (2010), p. 6.
- ^ Sankaranarayanan (2007), p. 15.
- ^ Singh (2008), p. [page needed].
- ^ Sali (1986), pp. 504–505.
- ^ a b Ray (2006), p. 21-22.
- ^ Lal (1960).
- ^ Ray (2006), pp. 21–22.
- ^ Mahadevan (2001a).
- ^ Mahadevan (2006).
- ^ a b "Corpus by Asko Parpola". Mohenjodaro. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020.
- ^ Mahadevan (1977), pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b Fairservis (1992), pp. 9–10.
- ^ Bonta (2010), pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b c d e f Mukhopadhyay (2019), p. 2.
- ^ Wells (2015), pp. 66–76.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Stiebing & Helft (2018), pp. 104–105.
- ^ a b c Possehl (2002), p. 132.
- ^ Mahadevan (1977), pp. 14–15, 24–25, 32–35.
- ^ Wells (2015), p. 13.
- ^ a b Possehl (2002), p. 133.
- ^ a b c Mahadevan (1977), pp. 10–14.
- ^ Sen (1999), p. 35.
- ^ a b Possehl (2002), p. 134.
- ^ Possehl (1996), p. 59–62.
- ^ Cunningham (1877), Plate No. XXVIII.
- ^ Possehl (2002), p. 131, 133, fig. 7.5.
- ^ a b Zvelebil (1990), pp. 85–86, 96.
- ^ a b Possehl (2002), p. 136.
- ^ Marshall (1931), p. 423.
- ^ "Sceau cylindre — Louvre Collections". collections.louvre.fr (in French).
- ^ "Cylinder seal carved with an elongated buffalo and a Harappan inscription". Louvre Museum. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020.
- ^ Marshall (1931), p. 425.
- ^ Possehl (2002), p. 131.
- ^ Hunter (1932), p. 483.
- ^ a b Shinde & Willis (2014).
- ^ Mahadevan (1977), p. 9.
- ^ Possehl (2002), p. 132.
- ^ Witzel (1999).
- ^ Kuiper (1991), p. [page needed].
- ^ Possehl (2002), p. 136.
- ^ Farmer, Sproat & Witzel (2004), pp. 19–20.
- ^ Rao (2011), 14:06―15:43.
- ^ Heras (1953).
- ^ a b c Parpola (1994).
- ^ Knorozov (1965).
- ^ Bryant (2001), p. 183.
- ^ Fairservis (1971).
- ^ Fairservis (1992).
- ^ a b Rao et al. (2009).
- ^ a b Rao et al. (2010).
- ^ Lo, Lawrence. "Indus Script". ancient scripts.com. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019.
- ^ Rao (2011).
- ^ Mahadevan (2008).
- ^ Mahadevan (2014).
- ^ The Hindu (2014).
- ^ Mitchiner (1978), p. 5.
- ^ Robinson (2002), p. [page needed].
- ^ Sreedharan (2007), p. 268–269.
- ^ Parpola (1986), p. 411.
- ^ Possehl (2002), p. 137.
- ^ Bonta, Steven C. (2023). "A Partial Decipherment of the Indus Valley Script: Proposed Phonetic and Logographic Values for Selected Indus Signs and Readings of Indus Texts".
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Fairservis (1992), p. 14.
- ^ "Indus Script". ancientscripts.com. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016.
- ^ Farmer, Sproat & Witzel (2004).
- ^ Lawler (2004).
- ^ Parpola (2005), p. 37.
- ^ Parpola (2008).
- ^ Rao (2010).
- ^ Computational Linguistics, Volume 36, Issue 4, December 2010.
- ^ Sproat (2014).
- ^ Rao et al. (2015).
- ^ Sproat (2015).
- ^ Everson (1999).
- ^ "SEI List of Scripts Not Yet Encoded". linguistics.berkeley.edu/sei/.
- ^ "Proposed New Scripts". unicode.org.
- ^ "A Free Complete Indus Font Package Available". www.harappa.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2017.
- ^ "Corpus by Asko Parpola". Mohenjodaro. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020.
- ^ Nadeem, Faryal (27 February 2017). "All Signs of Indus Script Has Been Converted Into Font". Archived from the original on 26 August 2019.
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Further reading
- JSTOR 29756504.
- Mahadevan, Iravatham (1999). "Murukan In the Indus Script". Varalaaru. Archived from the original on 13 August 2006.
- JSTOR 44155743. Archived from the originalon 23 July 2007.
- Mahadevan, Iravatham (4 February 2007). "Towards a Scientific Study of the Indus Script". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 10 June 2014. Adapted from an address given at the inaugural function of the Indus Research Centre at the Roja Muthiah Research Library, Chennai, on 25 January 2007.
- Mukhopadhyay, Bahata Ansumali (2018b). "Ancient Tax Tokens, Trade Licenses and Metrological Records?: Making Sense of Indus Inscribed Objects Through Script-Internal, Contextual, Linguistic, and Ethnohistorical Lenses". SSRN Electronic Journal. S2CID 235275002.
- Mukhopadhyay, Bahata Ansumali (2021). "Metal-smithy, Bead-making, Jeweler's weight, Trade-permit, Tax-stamp: Indus Script's Semasiography Partly Decoded". SSRN Electronic Journal. S2CID 233754033.
- Parpola, Asko; Joshi, Jagat Pati (1987). Corpus of Indus seals and inscriptions. Vol. 1, Collections in India. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.
- Parpola, Asko; Shah, Sayid Ghulam Mustafa (1991). Corpus of Indus seals and inscriptions. Vol. 2, Collections in Pakistan. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.
- Parpola, Asko; Pande, Brij Mohan; Koskikallio, Petteri (2010). Corpus of Indus seals and inscriptions. Vol. 3, New material, untraced objects, and collections outside India and Pakistan, Part 1: Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.
- Vidale, Massimo (2007). "The collapse melts down: a reply to Farmer, Sproat and Witzel". JSTOR 29757733.
- Wells, Bryan (1998). An Introduction to Indus Writing (Thesis). Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary.