Insect ecology
Insect ecology is the interaction of insects, individually or as a community, with the surrounding environment or ecosystem.[1]
Insects play significant roles in the
Insects form an important part of the
Community ecology
Decomposers
Decomposer insects are ones that feed on dead or rotten bodies of plant or animal life. These insects are called saprophages
Carnivores
Carnivorous insects survive by eating other living animals, be it through hunting, sucking blood, or as an internal parasite. These insects fall into three basic categories: predators, parasites, and parasitoids.
Predatory insects are typically larger as their survival is dependent upon their ability to hunt, kill/immobilize, and eat their prey.[7] However, there are several exceptions, with ants being the most notable. Ants, and other colony insects, can use their sheer numbers to overwhelm their prey even if the ants are significantly smaller. They often have specialized mandibles (mouthparts) for this task, some causing excruciating pain, paralysis, or simply having a high bite force. Conversely, insects that live on their own must be able to reliably bring down their prey and as such have developed a myriad of unique hunting methods. Some actively travel, seeking out their prey, while others wait in an ambush. Others may release chemicals to attract specific creatures and others still will eat anything they can.[8]
Parasites infest the victim's body and eat it from the inside out. The presence of the parasite is often not noticed by the host as the size discrepancy is typically so vast. Parasites vary widely in how they survive in their host; some complete their full life cycle within the body while others may only stay in for the duration of their larval stage. There is as great of variation in methodology and species in parasites as in any other type of insect. The most threatening parasites to humans are ones that live outside the host and consume the host's blood. These species transmit viruses, disease, and even other, smaller parasites to the host, spreading these throughout the populations of many third world countries with poor health care.
A subcategory of parasites, called parasitoids, is one that feeds on the host body so much so that the host is eventually eaten. One species of wasp, the spider wasp, will paralyze spiders before bringing them back to their nest and injecting them with a wasp larvae. The larvae will eat its way out, secreting a numbing and paralyzing agent until there is nothing left of the spider other than the exoskeleton, then go through a metamorphism and become an adult wasp.
Herbivores
Out of all
Schoonhoven and associates, from Blaney et al 1985 to Schoonhoven et al 1992, illuminate the interplay between
Climate change is expected to change herbivory relationships. Liu et al 2011 finds no change in distribution in one example, but instead the same herbivore switched
Coevolution
Coevolution is the ecological process by which two species exclusively affect each other’s evolution. This concept is essential to the study of insect ecology. Coevolution is particularly important in how it can lead to both micro- and macro-evolutionary changes. Micro-evolutionary changes include shifts in genome and alleles while macro-evolution is the emergence of a new species, also called speciation.[12] Two species that coevolve experience reciprocal evolution and go through biological changes as a result of the other species.[13] One example of this in insect ecology is the coevolution of Dasyscolia ciliata, a species of wasp, and Ophrys speculum, a species of orchid. These two species have both evolved in such a way that the wasp is the only known pollinator of the plant. This relationship can be seen in other species of flowering plants and pollinating insects, but a more distinct example is the coevolution of ants and acacias. The acacia ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an insect that has been discovered to protect five different species of acacia trees. The ant provides protection to the plant while the acacias reciprocate by supplying food and shelter. Over generations, these two species have adapted to accommodate each other, an example of coevolution.
Interspecific relationships
Due to their diverse functions, diets, and lifestyles, insects are integral components of terrestrial ecological communities. Beyond functioning as decomposers, carnivores, and herbivores, insects often participate in other species interactions. These interactions can both positively and adversely affect plants, mammals, and other insects.[14] More specifically, insects participate in mutualism, amensalism, commensalism, predation and parasitism.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship between two or more species in which each benefits. Common mutualistic relationships include cleaning symbiosis, animal induced pollination, or protection from predators. One example of insect mutualism is the pollination of flowering plants by insects, a field of study known as anthecology. Primarily, various bee species work as pollinators of flowering plants, feeding on their nectar and in turn picking up their pollen and spreading it to other flowers.[15] Another example of insect mutualism is the process by which ants shelter and feed aphids in their anthills and feed off of their honeydew in return.
Amensalism
Commensalism
Commensalism is a different type of ecological interaction between species in which one species gains benefits while the other is neither harmed nor benefited. Two examples of commensalism that can be seen in insect ecology are phoresy, an interaction in which one attaches itself to another for transportation, and inquilinism, the use of another organism for shelter. Ticks and mites have adapted to latch onto beetles, flies, and bees (as well as other organisms) for transportation, an example of phoresy.[17] In terms of inquilinism, insects commonly establish themselves in human garages or shelters of other animals for protection against predators and weather.
Parasitoid insects
Parasitoids are insects that live intimately with a host, feed off of the host like a parasite, but eventually kill the host. This specific type of species interaction is exclusive to insects and is employed most commonly by wasps. An example of this is when parasitoid wasps inject their eggs into aphids. The eggs will eventually hatch and produce wasp larvae that feed on and consume the organism. Additionally, some parasitoids chemically affect the host to propagate the development of parasitic offspring. Parasitoid wasps typically prey on a specific insect or spider species, and the host life-stage at which the wasp deposits its seed differs. In regard to humans, parasitoid insects are favored because they can be used as biological pest controls for farmers, preying on other insects that damage crops.[18]
Competition: Insects often compete with each other for resources such as food, territory, and mates. Competition can occur within species (intraspecific) or between species (interspecific). This competition can lead to adaptations and niche differentiation, where species evolve to occupy different ecological niches to minimize competition.
Neutralism
In some cases, insects may interact with each other without affecting one another positively or negatively. They simply coexist without any significant impact on each other's fitness or survival. This type of relationship is often observed when insects occupy different habitats or have minimal interactions[19].
Facilitation
Facilitation occurs when one species indirectly benefits another species by modifying the environment. For example, certain insects may create microhabitats or modify resources that become beneficial for other insect species. An example of this could be a species of insect that creates shelter or nesting sites that are subsequently utilized by other insect species[20].
Symbiosis
Symbiosis[21] is a broad term that encompasses various types of long-term interactions between different species. While mutualism and parasitism are specific types of symbiotic relationships, there are other forms as well. For instance, in some cases, insects may engage in symbiotic relationships where one species benefits while the other is unaffected. This is known as commensal symbiosis.
Mimicry
Insects may evolve to mimic the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of other species. This can be beneficial for the mimicking species in various ways, such as gaining protection from predators or gaining access to resources. For example, some harmless insects mimic the appearance of more dangerous or unpalatable species to avoid predation[22].
Allelopathy
Allelopathy involves the release of chemicals by one species that affects the growth, development, or behavior of another species. While this type of interaction is more commonly associated with plants, certain insects may also engage in allelopathic relationships with each other. These chemicals can influence competition, reproduction, or survival of other insect species in the vicinity.[23]
References
- ISBN 978-0-12-088772-9. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-1113-3. Retrieved 17 Jul 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-86542-745-7. Retrieved 2010-07-24.
- ^ Schowalter, T. (2006). Insect Ecology : An Ecosystem Approach. 2nd ed. [ebook] Academic Press, pp.1-585. Available at: http://site.ebrary.com/lib/csum/reader.action?docID=10225026 [Accessed 11 April 2017].
- ISBN 978-1-139-50443-0.
- ISBN 978-0-08-098453-7.
- ISBN 978-0-12-803037-0.
- ^ Capinera, J. (2010). Insects and Wildlife : Arthropods and their Relationships with Wild Vertebrate Animals. 2nd ed. [ebook] Wiley-Blackwell, pp.1-501. Available at: http://site.ebrary.com/lib/csum/reader.action?docID=10366557 [Accessed 11 April 2017].
- ^ S2CID 225521141.
- PMID 12414737.
- ISSN 0030-1299.
- ^ "Coevolution". obo. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
- ^ "Coevolution | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
- ISBN 978-0-12-381351-0, retrieved 2022-11-15
- ^ "Bees as Pollinators | Arkansas Pollinators". Bees as Pollinators | Arkansas Pollinators. Retrieved 2022-11-15.
- ^ Sapkota, Anupama (2022-07-08). "Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction- Definition, Types, Examples". The Biology Notes. Retrieved 2022-11-15.
- ISSN 0066-4170.
- ^ "Insect Parasitoids: Important Natural Enemies of Pests | Entomology". entomology.ca.uky.edu. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
- ^ "Insect Ecology" (PDF). Jan 2015.
- ISSN 2214-5745.
- ^ "Symbiosis".
- ^ University, Georgia State. "The Strange World of Insects That Mimic Other Insects". Treehugger. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
- PMID 21254327.
Bibliography
- Huffaker, Carl B. & Gutierrez, A. P. (1999). Ecological Entomology. 2nd Edition (illustrated). John Wiley and Sons. on Google Books. Accessed on 09 Jan 2010,
- Clausen, C. P. (1976). "Phoresy Among Entomophagous Insects". Annual Review of Entomology. 21 (1): 343–368. – via Annual Reviews.
- Schowalter, Timothy (2011). Insect Ecology (Third Edition) (Third ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 513–523. ISBN 978-0-12-381351-0.
External links
- Media related to Insect ecology at Wikimedia Commons