International Building (Rockefeller Center)
International Building | |
---|---|
General information | |
Status | Completed |
Type | Office building |
Location | 626–636 Fifth Avenue Manhattan, New York 10112 |
Coordinates | 40°45′33″N 73°58′40″W / 40.75917°N 73.97778°W |
Completed | May 1, 1935 |
Owner | Tishman Speyer |
Height | |
Roof | 512 ft (156 m) |
Technical details | |
Floor count | 41 |
Floor area | 1,148,369 sq ft (106,687.0 m2)[1] |
Design and construction | |
Architect(s) | Raymond Hood |
Developer | John D. Rockefeller Jr. |
International Building | |
New York City Landmark No. 1446, 1449[a]
| |
Area | 22 acres (8.8 ha) |
Architect | Raymond Hood |
Architectural style | Modern, Art Deco |
Part of | Rockefeller Center (ID87002591) |
NYCL No. | 1446, 1449[a] |
Significant dates | |
Added to NRHP | December 23, 1987[4] |
Designated CP | December 23, 1987[5] |
Designated NYCL | April 23, 1985 |
References | |
[2][1] |
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The International Building, also known by its addresses 630 Fifth Avenue and 45 Rockefeller Plaza, is a skyscraper at Rockefeller Center in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Completed in 1935, the 41-story, 512 ft (156 m) building was designed in the Art Deco style by Raymond Hood, Rockefeller Center's lead architect. The main tower is set back from Fifth Avenue and includes two 6-story wings to the east, known as Palazzo d'Italia and International Building North. The wings flank an entrance plaza that contains Lee Lawrie's Atlas statue.
The facade is made of
The International Building was developed as part of the construction of Rockefeller Center, although plans for the building were modified multiple times. A groundbreaking ceremony was hosted in July 1933, after Italian interests leased the southern wing, but Rockefeller Center's managers could not secure a commitment for a specific country in the northern wing. The building's superstructure was constructed in 136 days from September 1934 to May 1935. The Palazzo d'Italia was modified in the 1940s after the start of World War II, and further modifications were made in the late 20th century. Over the years, the International Building has contained a variety of tenants, including numerous foreign consulates.
Site
The International Building is part of the
The International Building is at the northeast corner of the Rockefeller Center complex.[12] The building faces La Maison Francaise and the British Empire Building to the south; the two structures are architectural twins of the International Building's low-rise wings.[7][13] Also within Rockefeller Center are 30 Rockefeller Plaza to the southwest and 1260 Avenue of the Americas, Radio City Music Hall, and 50 Rockefeller Plaza to the west. In addition, 75 Rockefeller Plaza, the Women's National Republican Club, and 650 Fifth Avenue are immediately to the north. The Cartier Building, 647 Fifth Avenue, and the Olympic Tower are diagonally across Fifth Avenue and 51st Street to the northwest. The building also faces St. Patrick's Cathedral to the east and the Saks Fifth Avenue flagship store (including 623 Fifth Avenue) to the southeast.[6] The site was previously part of the campus of Columbia University,[14] which retained ownership of most of the land well after the complex was built.[15]
Architecture
The International Building was designed by the Associated Architects of Rockefeller Center, composed of the firms of
Hartley Burr Alexander, a mythology and symbology professor who oversaw Rockefeller Center's art program, led the installation of artwork throughout the complex.[24][25][26] Rockefeller Center's international complex was decorated to an international theme, with motifs representing the arts, peace, and commerce.[27]
Form
The main portion of the International Building is its 41-story tower. The main tower was recessed as far back from Fifth Avenue as possible to maximize rental space while still complying with the
Wings
The tower is flanked by two six-story wings: Palazzo d'Italia and International Building North. At the sixth story, both wings contain setbacks to their north and south.[34] The Palazzo d'Italia (literally the Italian Palace) is at 626 Fifth Avenue.[35] The limestone-clad wing is attached to the main tower at its northwest corner.[36] International Building North, at 636 Fifth Avenue, is identical to the Palazzo d'Italia and is attached to the main tower at its southwest corner.[35] The northeast and southeast corners of the main tower are set back above the seventh story, running above both wings.[31]
Both wings contain Mediterranean-themed
The wings surround a central entrance plaza to the east.[40] The plaza is paved in gray and pink stone, arranged in geometric shapes.[41] Lee Lawrie's 15 ft-tall (4.6 m), 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) bronze Atlas statue is at the center of the Fifth Avenue entrance plaza, placed on a 9 ft-high (2.7 m) pedestal.[41][42] It depicts the ancient Greek Titan Atlas holding a 21 ft-wide (6.4 m) armillary sphere.[41][43][44] The statue incorporates motifs such as zodiac signs and an axis aligned with the North Star.[42] The pedestal is placed diagonally, with its eastern corner facing Fifth Avenue,[45] and it is surrounded by granite benches.[30]
Facade
The entire facade is made of limestone; the vertical piers and the reveals of the windows are very plain in design.[30][20] When the building was developed, the Associated Architects gave the recessed main tower a one-story-tall entryway on Fifth Avenue, emphasizing the wings on either side.[46] The wings' entrances on Fifth Avenue complement the main tower.[28][46] The side entrances on 50th and 51st Streets contain limestone reliefs created by Lawrie.[47] The exterior contains 9,600 short tons (8,600 long tons; 8,700 t) of limestone and 2,900 windows. In addition, the building uses 4.65 million bricks, weighing 8,360 short tons (7,460 long tons; 7,580 t).[48]
Fifth Avenue
The building contains a central plaza on its east, facing the Fifth Avenue entrance.[49] Behind the Atlas statue, the main slab contains a limestone loggia with four piers, between which are three doorways to the four-story-high lobby.[30][50] Each opening contains a revolving door with a granite frame.[30] Plate-glass windows rise above the doors, reflecting both the Atlas statue and St. Patrick's Cathedral across the street.[51][41] Both wings originally included artworks by Attilio Piccirilli above their entrances,[52] as well as decorations by Leo Lentelli.[53] The south elevation of International Building North, as well as the north elevation of the Palazzo, also face the plaza. These elevations contain storefronts and display windows.[30]
Palazzo d'Italia
The ground floor of the Palazzo includes storefronts and display windows, above which runs a cornice. The center of the Palazzo contains a main entrance with bronze doors.[36] Above the doors and within the entrance, Piccirilli designed a 10 by 16 ft (3.0 by 4.9 m) glass panel, which depicted a man holding a spade with Italian inscriptions above and below.[54][55] Corning Inc. manufactured the panel, which was built in 45 pieces.[54] The works were covered in 1941 because they overtly celebrated fascism.[56][57][58] In 1965, the original Piccirilli work above the entrance was replaced by Giacomo Manzù's bronze relief Italia, which depicts fruits below the word "Italia".[56][59] The same year, Manzù created The Immigrant, a bas-relief depicting a penurious mother and child with their belongings, upon a background of sgraffito foliage.[56][60] The Immigrant replaced the center door of the entryway,[56] but it was reoriented in 2001 when the center door was re-added.[60]
The entrance
International Building North
The ground floor of International Building North also includes storefronts and display windows topped by a cornice. The center of International Building North contains a main entrance with three bronze doors.[65] Because it was not originally built for a specific country, International Building North contains generic works related to international cooperation.[66][67] Piccirilli designed an opaque "Poetic Glass" screen within the entryway above the doors, symbolizing a youth's involvement in world affairs.[53][67] The glass panel, manufactured by Corning Inc. in 45 pieces, measures 10 by 16 ft (3.0 by 4.9 m) and is made of semi-opaque "poetic glass".[68][67] Each glass piece was made with a unique mold, which was destroyed after the glass piece had been cast.[67] The panel depicts a youth behind two rearing horses and a chariot driver, pointing to the left.[53][67]
Piccirilli's cartouche above the entryway depicts a male and female holding brown tools. The figures are separated by a winged
50th Street
On 50th Street, there are several storefronts and display windows, interrupted by three entrances. A cornice runs above the first story there.[74] For the 9 West 50th Street entrance (leading to the Palazzo d'Italia), Lawrie had created Saint Francis of Assisi with Birds, a bas-relief depicting Francis of Assisi.[75][61][76][77] Francis is depicted wearing a brown robe, sitting on a brown bench, with a halo of golden birds around his head and more golden birds eating from a bowl in his hand.[61][76] Below this artwork are horizontal brown and aqua strips, interrupted by light-brown dentils in a checkerboard pattern. This was the only original artwork on the Palazzo d'Italia's exterior that were not modified during World War II.[61]
Further west along 50th Street is an entrance to the main tower at 19 West 50th Street. Above the doorway is a depiction of a gilded plowshare containing crossed swords.
At the far west end of the 50th Street elevation is a third entrance. Above this, Lawrie designed a screen of 15 hieroglyphic panels, arranged in five rows with three
Rockefeller Plaza
The facade's rear elevation on Rockefeller Plaza contains storefronts and display windows.[74] The rear elevation contains two limestone reliefs by Gaston Lachaise, which honor the workers who built the complex.[86][84] They were two of six carvings Lachaise did for Rockefeller Center, the other four being at the rear of 30 Rockefeller Plaza.[84] The panels are placed above what were originally entrances at 41 Rockefeller Plaza (to the right) and 45 Rockefeller Plaza (to the left). Each panel measures 12 by 7 ft (3.7 by 2.1 m).[86] The left panel shows two workers above a steel beam.[87][88] The right panel shows workmen demolishing buildings on the site: one with a crowbar and the other with a blowtorch.[88][89]
After the building's completion, the rear elevation was modified to reflect Isamu Noguchi's design of 50 Rockefeller Plaza's entrance.[90][88] As a result, the entrance at 41 Rockefeller Plaza has been infilled and replaced with a storefront.[87] The remaining entrance at 45 Rockefeller Plaza is recessed deeply from the facade. There are three storefronts to the left (north) and four to the right (south) of the remaining entrance.[74] In addition, the northwest corner was replaced with a diagonal chamfer, the only one in the original Rockefeller Center complex.[89]
51st Street
On 51st Street, there are several storefronts and display windows, interrupted by two entrances at 10 and 20 West 51st Street. A cornice runs above the first story there.[30] For the 10 West 51st Street entrance (leading to International Building North), Lawrie designed a bas-relief with a woman and horn as an allegory for world cooperation.[77][65][91] The woman wears a green robe and is depicted as a flying figure, arising from gilded clouds with black borders. The horn contains green-and-gold dots depicting cornucopia.[92][91] Beneath the woman are three scalloped bands, which represent waves. From top to bottom, the bands are green, blue, and brown.[92] Leon V. Solon collaborated with Lawrie in the coloring of the carving.[91]
Further west along 51st Street is an entrance to the main tower at 20 West 51st Street. Above this is a lintel with gray-green trim and diagonally-oriented ridges.[41] Lawrie designed 14 heraldic shields in front of the lintel.[93][41] These shields are arranged in two rows, with three shields on the upper row and eleven on the lower row.[41] Solon collaborated with Lawrie in the coloring of the shields. While the coats of arms are fictional, they were intended to represent the international character of the building.[93] Gold letters with the building's name are placed above these shields.[94] The sidewalk of the entryway is made of gray-and-pink pavement and includes ornamental bronze plates.[78]
Interior
The superstructure uses 22,750 short tons (20,310 long tons; 20,640 t) of steel.[48] When built, the International Building had 827,149 sq ft (76,844.7 m2) of office space.[32][20] The building included several modern mechanical systems, including a "selective cooling system", characterized in Architectural Forum as "probably the most important single advance in the technique of large-scale cooling".[32][19] The International Building's lobby was inspired by the triangular lobby of the Chrysler Building and the chapel-like lobby of the Empire State Building. As the International Building was not as big as 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the Associated Architects designed the lobby to give an illusion of grandeur.[23]
Lobby
The lobby includes
As designed, the lobby had tiled floors with patterned red and green mosaic tiles.
Three-story-high hallways stretch north and south of the lobby, leading to the Palazzo d'Italia and International Building North.[50][95] Two additional passageways run west, connecting with the elevator lobbies and Rockefeller Plaza.[98] Marble piers, topped by nickel bronze moldings, surround the green-marble walls of the elevator bank at ground level.[95][101] Reeded moldings of marble are placed at the corners of these piers.[95]
The mezzanine level includes Paul Fjelde's bronze bust of Charles Lindbergh, installed in 1975.[23][99] There are red terrazzo tiles on the mezzanine's floor, surrounded by nickel-bronze bands.[102] The mezzanine also has green marble walls, as well as corridors to the north and south leading to the annexes. The openings to each corridor are surrounded by reeded moldings made of marble. Signs with the text "Mezzanine North Corridor" and "Mezzanine South Corridor" are placed above the corridor openings.[102] The basement connects to other buildings at Rockefeller Center, including 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the British Empire Building, and La Maison Francaise. This tunnel is 60 ft (18 m) wide; its roof, 7 ft (2.1 m) below 50th Street, is held up by six steel pillars and steel girders.[103]
Other stories
The passenger elevators are placed in a central core, ringed by a rectangular corridor on each floor.[99] The interiors of the elevator cabs were clad in metal with strips of wood veneer.[101] There were originally 28 elevators. At the building's opening, Westinghouse Electric Corporation equipped the elevator cabs with a "quota control" system, under which elevator calls would be distributed evenly to prevent overcrowding.[104] One original cab was donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1979.[105]
Offices surround the corridors on each of the levels above the four-story lobby. The office stories are arranged in a similar plan to the lobby.[99][106] The complex's original architect, Raymond Hood, ensured that all of the offices in the entire complex be a maximum of 27 ft (8.2 m) from a window since that was the maximum distance that sunlight could permeate the windows of a building at New York City's latitude.[107][99]
History
Development
The construction of Rockefeller Center occurred between 1932 and 1940[d] on land that John D. Rockefeller Jr. leased from Columbia University.[110][111] The Rockefeller Center site was originally supposed to be occupied by a new opera house for the Metropolitan Opera.[112] By 1928, Benjamin Wistar Morris and designer Joseph Urban were hired to come up with blueprints for the house.[113] However, the new building was too expensive for the opera to fund by itself, and it needed an endowment.[17] The project ultimately gained the support of John D. Rockefeller Jr.[17][114] The planned opera house was canceled in December 1929 due to various issues,[115][116][117] and Rockefeller quickly negotiated with Radio Corporation of America (RCA) and its subsidiaries, National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO), to build a mass media entertainment complex on the site.[118][119][120] By May 1930, RCA and its affiliates had agreed to develop the site.[121][122]
Planning
When plans for Rockefeller Center arose, a retail building with an oval plan was planned for the adjacent block to the south, between 49th and 50th Streets.[20][123][124] This was scrapped in early 1931.[123][124] An updated proposal for that site called for a 41-story tower and a pair of six-story retail buildings.[123] As American tenants were reluctant to rent in these retail buildings, Rockefeller Center's manager Hugh Robertson, formerly of Todd, Robertson and Todd, suggested foreign tenants for the buildings.[125][19][126] Rockefeller Center's managers held talks with prospective Czech, German, Italian, and Swedish lessees who could potentially occupy the six-story internationally themed buildings on Fifth Avenue. Dutch, Chinese, Japanese, and Russian tenants were also reportedly considered.[127][125][126] Because the canceled oval building had contained rooftop gardens, Raymond Hood suggested the idea for rooftop gardens across the complex, including on all of the retail buildings.[37][128][129] These gardens would be curated by Ralph Hancock.[130][131]
A department store and 45-story building was planned for the site of the current International Building, between 50th and 51st Streets, with the department store portion facing Fifth Avenue.[36][132][51] When the department store was canceled, the building was downsized to 30 stories, then to 14 stories.[51] The retail buildings on the block to the south, the British Empire Building and La Maison Francaise, were respectively leased by Britain[133] and France.[124][134] The final plans did not arise until after the British and French buildings were completed, when the architects decided that a series of identical retail structures on Fifth Avenue would be esthetically pleasing.[51]
The International Building plan was modified to its current status in June 1932, along with its two retail wings, which were nearly identical to the retail buildings to their south.[135][136][137] After making this change, Hood resigned from the development of Rockefeller Center because of his illness.[20] With this plan, the main tower was increased to 38 stories.[51] The retail wings were to be connected to the main tower via a four-story galleria measuring 60 ft (18 m) wide and 100 ft (30 m) long. The southern wing had been named the Italian Building (later the Palazzo d'Italia), and Italy's dictator Benito Mussolini had expressed his approval of the project.[135][136] Mussolini was impressed by the wing's 9-story height, which beat the 6-story height of the French and British buildings.[138] Rockefeller Center's officials projected that the northern wing would be occupied by German interests.[135][136]
Construction and opening
In March 1933, a company led by Italian senator Vittorio Scialoja was established for the purpose of operating the Palazzo d'Italia.[139] The wing was to be occupied by four subsidiaries of that company, known as the Commercial, Art, Food, and Tourist corporations. By early July, Rockefeller Center's developers had leased 40,000 sq ft (3,700 m2) of space in the Palazzo, representing about a third of that structure's total floor area.[140] A groundbreaking ceremony for Palazzo d'Italia took place on July 12, 1933, attended by Italian senator Antonio Mosconi, Rockefeller Center Inc. president Arthur Woods, and John D. Rockefeller Jr.'s son Nelson Rockefeller.[141][142] The otherwise formal event was interrupted by a fascist chant led by an unemployed bricklayer.[141] Rockefeller Center Inc. filed plans with the New York City Department of Buildings in May 1934 for the two wings and a 38-story, 512 ft (156 m) International Tower at 45 Rockefeller Plaza.[143]
The final small wing would have been rented by Germany under the name "Deutsches Haus", but Rockefeller ruled this out following Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1932.[144][145] Russia started negotiating to lease the north wing in 1934,[146] but the Russians were no longer actively seeking a lease by the next year.[147] With no definite tenant for the northernmost building, the Rockefeller Center's managers reduced the proposed nine-story wings to six stories,[148] enlarged and realigned the main building from a north-south to a west-east axis,[49] and replaced the galleria between the two retail wings with an expansion of the International Building's lobby.[28][149] The empty office site thus became International Building North, rented by various tenants.[148][150]
The steel frame for the Palazzo was constructed starting in September 1934, after the plans had been modified.[151][152] Work proceeded quickly,[153] with the building rising about 4 ft (1.2 m) per day. The International Building's construction involved 1.3 million man-hours of work, during which only 5,000-man-hours of delays were reported due to accidents.[21][48] The low accident rate was attributed to construction contractors' use of modern safety measures, as well as the use of automatic equipment and two staging areas for columns and beams on the building's seventh floor.[154] In April 1935, Nelson Rockefeller hosted a ceremony in the International Building's lobby, giving craftsmanship awards to 31 workers who were involved in the project.[155][84] When Rockefeller Center's developers opened the building on May 1, 1935, only 136 days had elapsed from groundbreaking to completion.[21][147][48] The International Building was seen as a symbol of solidarity during the interwar period, when Italy's entry in the League of Nations was obstructed by American isolationists.[156][157]
1930s to 1960s
The month after the building opened, Rockefeller Center's managers selected Piccirilli, Lawrie, Lachaise, Chambellan, and Lentelli to create work for the International Building.[158][159] Lachaise's panels on the rear entrance were unveiled shortly afterward.[86][84] Piccirilli's work for Palazzo d'Italia was installed in July 1935,[160] followed by his work for International Building North in April 1936.[161] Lawrie's Atlas was installed in January 1937,[43][44] and his panels above three of the entrances on 50th and 51st Streets were unveiled in September 1937.[77]
Among the earliest tenants were booking offices for the
The International Building soon became a hub for consular offices; at the beginning of 1941, there were 19 consulates.[180] Though the U.S. government forced the closure of the Italian consulate that June, Rockefeller Center officials initially indicated they would not rename the Palazzo.[181] With the United States' entry into World War II that December, the Japanese consulate at the building was closed[182] and Piccirilli's artwork on the Palazzo wing boarded up, as the U.S. was fighting both Japan and Italy.[58][183] At this time, the Palazzo d'Italia was renamed International Building South.[184] The building continued to host exhibitions, including a Sculptors Guild display in 1942[185] and a showcase of Le Corbusier art in 1945.[186] In 1945, Bankers Trust leased a bank branch on three stories in International Building South, filing alteration plans with the Department of Buildings.[187] The branch spanned the basement, ground, and mezzanine levels with safe-deposit vaults below the basement.[188] Also around this time, the northwest corner of the ground floor was modified.[89] The Italian tourist bureau finally returned in 1949, at which point International Building South was planned to be renamed Palazzo d'Italia.[184][189]
When Sinclair Oil built a new headquarters two blocks south at
1970s and 1980s
The Investors Funding Corporation of New York and the Security National Title and Guaranty Company took up three floors by the early 1970s.[200] Other tenants during that decade were the Consolidated Newsprint Company,[201] Hanes,[202] and Bank Brussels Lambert.[203] Fjelde's bust of Charles Lindbergh was dedicated in the lobby in 1975,[23][99][204] and Ihara's Light and Movement was installed there in 1978 after Nelson Rockefeller, a modern-art connoisseur, had commissioned a structure to fill the empty lobby walls.[100] Rockefeller Center's managers cleaned the facade of the International Building and its wings during 1979 as part of a restoration program across the entire complex.[205] Manship's 6 ft-tall (1.8 m) statues, which had stood atop the Palazzo d'Italia since it opened, were removed in 1984 and relocated to Rockefeller Center's central plaza.[39]
Columbia University was not making enough money from Rockefeller Center leases by the 1970s,
Meanwhile, Columbia had agreed to sell the land to the Rockefeller Group for $400 million in February 1985.
1990s to present
By the early 1990s, the International Building was 87 percent occupied.
In 2020, Tishman Speyer hired
Reception
At the International Building's completion, Architectural Forum wrote, "The form of the building is severe and rather clunky", with the main slab rising its full height without any setbacks on Fifth Avenue.[32] Conversely, Architectural Forum wrote that the plaza had "splendid and imposing design" and that the lobby was "one of the best things of its kind that has yet been done".[51] Paul Goldberger of The New York Times wrote in 1976 that the escalators at the center of the lobby were "a modern equivalent of the triumphal staircase".[96] Six years later, Goldberger said 30 Rockefeller Plaza's form, "made sumptuous by its mounting setbacks", contrasted with the "smaller and bulkier" International Building and other structures in the complex.[246] Architect and writer Robert A. M. Stern wrote in his 1987 book New York 1930: "Its virtually reveal-less facades and detail-free columns and piers were complemented by the severe machine-like precision of the interior details."[20]
See also
- Art Deco architecture of New York City
- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
References
Notes
- ^ New York City designated landmark no. 1446 applies to Rockefeller Center, and landmark no. 1449 applies to the International Building's first floor interior.[3]
- ^ The other was the Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse.[19][20]
- ^ The text of Isaiah II:IV is "And he shall judge among the nations, and shall rebuke many people: and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruninghooks: nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more."[80][79]
- ^ 30 Rockefeller Plaza was the first building to start construction, in September 1932.[108] The last building was completed in 1940.[109]
- ^ Namely 1250 Avenue of the Americas, 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the British Empire Building, La Maison Francaise, the Channel Gardens, and the Lower Plaza[209]
- 1270 Avenue of the Americas; 1, 10, 30, 50, and 75 Rockefeller Plaza; the British Empire Building; the International Building; La Maison Francaise; and Radio City Music Hall.[209]
Citations
- ^ a b c "International Building - The Skyscraper Center". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. October 18, 2016. Archived from the original on March 13, 2022. Retrieved March 13, 2022.
- ^ a b "International Building". Emporis. Archived from the original on December 1, 2020. Retrieved March 13, 2022.
- ^ Pearson 1985, p. 1.
- ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.
- ^ a b "Rockefeller Center". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. September 18, 2007. Archived from the original on October 11, 2012.
- ^ a b c "1260 Avenue of the Amer, 10020". New York City Department of City Planning. Archived from the original on March 16, 2022. Retrieved March 13, 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19538-386-7.
- from the original on February 13, 2022. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
- ^ Adams 1985, p. 177.
- ^ Krinsky 1978, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Brown, Nicole (March 18, 2019). "Why do some buildings have their own ZIP codes? NYCurious". amNewYork. Archived from the original on July 8, 2022. Retrieved July 8, 2022.
- ^ Krinsky 1978, p. 4.
- ^ Robins 2017, p. 113.
- from the original on March 16, 2022. Retrieved November 10, 2017.
- from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
- ^ Federal Writers' Project 1939, p. 334.
- ^ a b c Adams 1985, p. 13.
- ^ Robins 2017, p. 112.
- ^ a b c Pearson 1985, p. 8.
- ^ a b c d e f Stern, Gilmartin & Mellins 1987, p. 665.
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- ^ from the original on March 12, 2022. Retrieved March 12, 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Architectural Forum 1935, p. 459.
- ^ Lombardo, J.V. (1944). Attilio Piccirilli: life of an American sculptor. Pitman Publishing Corporation. pp. 256–259. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021. Retrieved January 28, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g Adams 1985, p. 130.
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External links
- Media related to International Building (Rockefeller Center) at Wikimedia Commons
- "Emporis building ID 115575". Emporis. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017.