Interwar period
In the
Politically, the era coincided with the rise of communism, starting in Russia with the October Revolution and Russian Civil War, at the end of World War I, and ended with the rise of fascism, particularly in Germany and Italy. China was in the midst of a half-century of instability and the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. The empires of Britain, France, and others faced challenges as imperialism was increasingly viewed negatively and independence movements emerged in many colonies; in Europe, after protracted low-level fighting most of Ireland became independent.
The Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and German Empires were dismantled, with the Ottoman territories and German colonies redistributed among the Allies, chiefly Britain and France. The western parts of the Russian Empire, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland became independent nations in their own right, and Bessarabia (now Moldova and parts of Ukraine) chose to reunify with Romania.
In Russia, the Bolsheviks managed to regain control of Belarus and Ukraine, Central Asia, and the Caucasus, forming the Soviet Union. In the Near East, Egypt and Iraq gained independence. During the Great Depression, countries in Latin America nationalised many foreign companies (most of which belonged to the United States) in a bid to strengthen their own economies. The territorial ambitions of the Soviets, Japanese, Italians, and Germans led to the expansion of their domains.
Turmoil in Europe
Following the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November 1918 that ended World War I, the years 1918–1924 were marked by turmoil as the Russian Civil War continued to rage on, and Eastern Europe struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War and the destabilising effects of not just the collapse of the Russian Empire, but the destruction of the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires, as well. There were numerous new or restored countries in Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, some small in size, such as Lithuania and Latvia, and some larger, such as Poland and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The United States gained dominance in world finance. Thus, when Germany could no longer afford war reparations to Britain, France and other former members of the Entente, the Americans came up with the Dawes Plan and Wall Street invested heavily in Germany, which repaid its reparations to nations that, in turn, used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington. By the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known as the Roaring Twenties.[2]
International relations
The important stages of interwar diplomacy and international relations included resolutions of wartime issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and boundaries; American involvement in European finances and disarmament projects; the expectations and failures of the
Disarmament was a very popular public policy. However, the League of Nations played little role in this effort, with the United States and Britain taking the lead. U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes sponsored the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in determining how many capital ships each major country was allowed. The new allocations were actually followed and there were no naval races in the 1920s. Britain played a leading role in the 1927 Geneva Naval Conference and the 1930 London Conference that led to the London Naval Treaty, which added cruisers and submarines to the list of ship allocations. However the refusal of Japan, Germany, Italy and the USSR to go along with this led to the meaningless Second London Naval Treaty of 1936. Naval disarmament had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany and Japan.[5][6]
Roaring Twenties
The Roaring Twenties highlighted novel and highly visible social and cultural trends and innovations. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, and London. The Jazz Age began and Art Deco peaked.[7][8] For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a Marcel wave. The young women who pioneered these trends were called "flappers".[9] Not all was new: "normalcy" returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany.[10] The leftist revolutions in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Spain were defeated by conservatives, but succeeded in Russia, which became the base for Soviet communism and Marxism–Leninism.[11] In Italy, the National Fascist Party came to power under Benito Mussolini after threatening a March on Rome in 1922.[12]
Most independent countries enacted
The women's contribution to the war effort combined with failures of the previous systems' of Government made it more difficult than hitherto to maintain that women were, both by constitution and temperament, unfit to vote. If women could work in munitions factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was much more than simply a reward for war work; the point was that women's participation in the war helped to dispel the fears that surrounded women's entry into the public arena.[14]
In Europe, according to Derek Aldcroft and Steven Morewood, "Nearly all countries registered some economic progress in the 1920s and most of them managed to regain or surpass their pre-war income and production levels by the end of the decade." The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Greece did especially well, while Eastern Europe did poorly, due to the First World War and Russian Civil War.[15] In advanced economies the prosperity reached middle class households and many in the working class with radio, automobiles, telephones, and electric lighting and appliances. There was unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie stars. Major cities built large sports stadiums for the fans, in addition to palatial cinemas. The mechanisation of agriculture continued apace, producing an expansion of output that lowered prices, and made many farm workers redundant. Often they moved to nearby industrial towns and cities.
Great Depression
The
The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits, and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the United States rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%.[19] Prices fell sharply, especially for mining and agricultural commodities. Business profits fell sharply as well, with a sharp reduction in new business starts.
Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%.[20][21][22] Facing plummeting demand with few alternative sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most.[23]
The Weimar Republic in Germany gave way to two episodes of political and economic turmoil, the first culminated in the German hyperinflation of 1923 and the failed Beer Hall Putsch of that same year. The second convulsion, brought on by the worldwide depression and Germany's disastrous monetary policies, resulted in the further rise of Nazism.[24] In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regard to China.[25]
The rise of fascism
Democracy and prosperity largely went together in the 1920s. Economic disaster led to a distrust in the effectiveness of democracy and its collapse in much of Europe and Latin America, including the Baltic and Balkan countries, Poland, Spain, and Portugal. Powerful expansionary anti-democratic regimes emerged in Italy, Japan, and Germany.[26]
Fascism took control of the Kingdom of Italy in 1922; as the Great Depression worsened, Nazism emerged victorious in Germany, fascism spread to many other countries in Europe, and also played a major role in several countries in Latin America.[27] Fascist parties sprang up, attuned to local right-wing traditions, but also possessing common features that typically included extreme militaristic nationalism, a desire for economic self-containment, threats and aggression toward neighbouring countries, oppression of minorities, a ridicule of democracy while using its techniques to mobilise an angry middle-class base, and a disgust with cultural liberalism. Fascists believed in power, violence, male superiority, and a "natural" hierarchy, often led by dictators such as Benito Mussolini or Adolf Hitler. Fascism in power meant that liberalism and human rights were discarded, and individual pursuits and values were subordinated to what the party decided was best.[28]
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
To one degree or another, Spain had been unstable politically for centuries, and in 1936–1939 was wracked by one of the bloodiest civil wars of the 20th century. The real importance comes from outside countries. In Spain the conservative and Catholic elements and the army revolted against the newly elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, and full-scale civil war erupted. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany gave munitions and strong military units to the rebel Nationalist faction, led by General Francisco Franco. The Republican (or "Loyalist") government, was on the defensive, but it received significant help from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Led by Great Britain and France, and including the United States, most countries remained neutral and refused to provide armaments to either side. The powerful fear was that this localised conflict would escalate into a European conflagration that no one wanted.[29][30]
The Spanish Civil War was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the Nationalists won in 1939 by overwhelming the Republican forces. The Soviet Union provided armaments but never enough to equip the heterogeneous government militias and the "International Brigades" of outside far-left volunteers. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted all the Communists and many socialists and liberals against Catholics, conservatives and fascists. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.[31][32]
British Empire
The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy.[33] Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, in which Britain accepted naval parity with the United States. The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British pride, its finance, and its trade-oriented economy.[34][35]
Egypt had been under de facto British control since the 1880s, despite its nominal ownership by the Ottoman Empire. In 1922, the Kingdom of Egypt was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a client state following British guidance. Egypt joined the League of Nations. Egypt's King Fuad and his son King Farouk and their conservative allies stayed in power with lavish lifestyles thanks to an informal alliance with Britain who would protect them from both secular and Muslim radicalism.[39] Mandatory Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained official independence as the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932 when King Faisal agreed to British terms of a military alliance and an assured flow of oil.[40][41]
In
The Dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the Irish Free State) were self-governing and gained semi-independence in the World War, while Britain still controlled foreign policy and defence. The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy was recognised in 1923 and formalised by the 1931 Statute of Westminster. The Irish Free State effectively broke all ties with Britain in 1937, leaving the Commonwealth and becoming an independent republic.[38]: 373–402
French Empire
French census statistics from 1938 show an imperial population with France at over 150 million people, outside of France itself, of 102.8 million people living on 13.5 million square kilometers. Of the total population, 64.7 million lived in Africa and 31.2 million lived in Asia; 900,000 lived in the French West Indies or islands in the South Pacific. The largest colonies were French Indochina with 26.8 million (in five separate colonies), French Algeria with 6.6 million, the French protectorate in Morocco, with 5.4 million, and French West Africa with 35.2 million in nine colonies. The total includes 1.9 million Europeans, and 350,000 "assimilated" natives.[42][43][44]
Revolt in North Africa against Spain and France
The Berber independence leader
Germany
Weimar Republic
The humiliating peace terms in the Treaty of Versailles provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime. The Treaty stripped Germany of all of its overseas colonies, of Alsace–Lorraine, and of predominantly Polish districts. The Allied armies occupied industrial sectors in western Germany including the Rhineland, and Germany was not allowed to have a real army, navy, or air force. Reparations were demanded, especially by France, involving shipments of raw materials, as well as annual payments.[46]
When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The German government printed vast quantities of paper money, causing hyperinflation, which also damaged the French economy. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the hyperinflation caused many prudent savers to lose all the money they had saved. Weimar added new internal enemies every year, as anti-democratic Nazis, Nationalists, and Communists battled each other in the streets.[47]
Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new
Nazi era, 1933–1939
Hitler came to power in January 1933, and inaugurated an aggressive power designed to give Germany economic and political domination across central Europe. He did not attempt to recover the lost colonies. Until August 1939, the Nazis denounced Communists and the Soviet Union as the greatest enemy, along with the Jews.[49]
Hitler's diplomatic strategy in the 1930s was to make seemingly reasonable demands, threatening war if they were not met. When opponents tried to appease him, he accepted the gains that were offered, then went to the next target. That aggressive strategy worked as Germany pulled out of the
After establishing the "
At the
Italy
In 1922, the leader of the
The month following the ratification of the Treaty of Lausanne, Mussolini ordered the invasion of the Greek island of
During the late 1920s, imperial expansion became an increasingly favoured theme in Mussolini's speeches.[54] Amongst Mussolini's aims were that Italy had to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean that would be able to challenge France or Britain, as well as attain access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.[54] Mussolini alleged that Italy required uncontested access to the world's oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty.[55] This was elaborated on in a document he later drew up in 1939 called "The March to the Oceans", and included in the official records of a meeting of the Grand Council of Fascism.[55] This text asserted that maritime position determined a nation's independence: countries with free access to the high seas were independent; while those who lacked this, were not. Italy, which only had access to an inland sea without French and British acquiescence, was only a "semi-independent nation", and alleged to be a "prisoner in the Mediterranean":[55]
The bars of this prison are Corsica, Tunisia, Malta, and Cyprus. The guards of this prison are Gibraltar and Suez. Corsica is a pistol pointed at the heart of Italy; Tunisia at Sicily. Malta and Cyprus constitute a threat to all our positions in the eastern and western Mediterranean. Greece, Turkey, and Egypt have been ready to form a chain with Great Britain and to complete the politico-military encirclement of Italy. Thus Greece, Turkey, and Egypt must be considered vital enemies of Italy's expansion ... The aim of Italian policy, which cannot have, and does not have continental objectives of a European territorial nature except Albania, is first of all to break the bars of this prison ... Once the bars are broken, Italian policy can only have one motto—to march to the oceans.
— Benito Mussolini, The March to the Oceans[55]
In the Balkans, the Fascist regime claimed Dalmatia and held ambitions over Albania, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Greece based on the precedent of previous Roman dominance in these regions.[56] Dalmatia and Slovenia were to be directly annexed into Italy while the remainder of the Balkans was to be transformed into Italian client states.[57] The regime also sought to establish protective patron-client relationships with Austria, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.[56]
In both 1932 and 1935, Italy demanded a League of Nations mandate of the former German Cameroon and a free hand in the Ethiopian Empire from France in return for Italian support against Germany in the Stresa Front.[58] This was refused by French Prime Minister Édouard Herriot, who was not yet sufficiently worried about the prospect of a German resurgence.[58] The failed resolution of the Abyssinia Crisis led to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Italy annexed Ethiopia to its empire.[citation needed]
Italy's stance towards Spain shifted between the 1920s and the 1930s. The Fascist regime in the 1920s held deep antagonism towards Spain due to
After Great Britain signed the Anglo-Italian
Albanian Prime Minister and President
Regional patterns
Balkans
The
In the Albanian Kingdom, Zog I introduced new civil codes, constitutional changes and attempted land reforms, the latter which was largely unsuccessful due to the inadequacy of the country's banking system that could not deal with advanced reformist transactions. Albania's reliance on Italy also grew as Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage, breeding a colonial-like mentality.[69]
Ethnic integration and assimilation was a major problem faced by the newly formed post-World War I Balkan states, which were compounded by historical differences. In the
China
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (May 2022) |
Japanese dominance in East Asia
The Japanese modelled their industrial economy closely on the most advanced Western European models. They started with textiles, railways, and shipping, expanding to electricity and machinery. The most serious weakness was a shortage of raw materials. Industry ran short of copper, and coal became a net importer. A deep flaw in the aggressive military strategy was a heavy dependence on imports including 100 per cent of the aluminium, 85 per cent of the iron ore, and especially 79 per cent of the oil supplies. It was one thing to go to war with China or Russia, but quite another to be in conflict with the key suppliers, especially the United States, Britain, and the Netherlands, of oil and iron.[70]
Japan joined the Allies of the First World War to make territorial gains. Together with the British Empire, it divided up Germany's territories scattered in the Pacific and on the Chinese coast; they did not amount to very much. The other Allies pushed back hard against Japan's efforts to dominate China through the Twenty-One Demands of 1915. Its occupation of Siberia proved unproductive. Japan's wartime diplomacy and limited military action had produced few results, and at the Paris Versailles peace conference at the end of the war, Japan was frustrated in its ambitions. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, its Racial Equality Proposal led to increasing diplomatic isolation. The 1902 alliance with Britain was not renewed in 1922 because of heavy pressure on Britain from Canada and the United States. In the 1920s Japanese diplomacy was rooted in a largely liberal democratic political system, and favoured internationalism. By 1930, however, Japan was rapidly reversing itself, rejecting democracy at home, as the Army seized more and more power, and rejecting internationalism and liberalism. By the late 1930s it had joined the Axis military alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.[70]: 563–612, 666
In 1930, the London disarmament conference angered the
Japan seizes Manchuria
In September 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army—acting on its own without government approval—seized control of Manchuria, an anarchic area that China had not controlled in decades. It created the puppet government of Manchukuo. Britain and France effectively controlled the League of Nations, which issued the Lytton Report in 1932, saying that Japan had genuine grievances, but it acted illegally in seizing the entire province. Japan quit the League, and Britain and France took no action. US Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson announced that the United States would also not recognise Japan's conquest as legitimate. Germany welcomed Japan's actions.[72][73]
Towards the conquest of China
The civilian government in Tokyo tried to minimise the Army's aggression in Manchuria, and announced it was withdrawing. On the contrary, the Army completed the conquest of Manchuria, and the civilian cabinet resigned. The political parties were divided on the issue of military expansion. Prime Minister Tsuyoshi tried to negotiate with China but was assassinated in the May 15 Incident in 1932, which ushered in an era of nationalism and militarism led by the Imperial Japanese Army and supported by other right-wing societies. The IJA's nationalism ended civilian rule in Japan until after 1945.[74]
The Army, however, was itself divided into cliques and factions with different strategic viewpoints. One faction viewed the Soviet Union as the main enemy; the other sought to build a mighty empire based in Manchuria and northern China. The Navy, while smaller and less influential, was also factionalised. Large-scale warfare, known as the
Latin America
The United States launched minor interventions into Latin America. These included military presence in Cuba, Panama with the Panama Canal Zone, Haiti (1915–1935), Dominican Republic (1916–1924), and Nicaragua (1912–1933). The U.S. Marine Corps began to specialise in long-term military occupation of these countries.[76]
The
During the interwar period, United States policy makers continued to be concerned over German influence in Latin America.[78][79] Some analysts grossly exaggerated the influence of Germans in South America even after the First World War when German influence somewhat declined.[79][80] As the influence of United States grew all-over the Americas Germany concentrated its foreign policy efforts in the Southern Cone countries where US influence was weaker and larger German communities were at place.[78]
The contrary ideals of
Sports
Sports became increasingly popular, drawing enthusiastic fans to large stadiums.[81] The International Olympic Committee (IOC) worked to encourage Olympic ideals and participation. Following the 1922 Latin American Games in Rio de Janeiro, the IOC helped to establish national Olympic committees and prepare for future competition. In Brazil, however, sporting and political rivalries slowed progress as opposing factions fought for control of international sport. The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam had greatly increased participation from Latin American athletes.[82]
English and Scottish engineers had brought futebol (soccer) to Brazil in the late 19th century. The International Committee of the YMCA of North America and the Playground Association of America played major roles in training coaches.
End of an era
The interwar period ended in September 1939 with the German and Soviet invasion of Poland and the start of World War II.[85]
See also
- International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
- Aftermath of World War I
- 1920s
- Jazz age
- Roaring Twenties
- 1930s
- International relations (1919–1939)
- Diplomatic history of World War I
- Diplomatic history of World War II
- Causes of World War II
- Interwar Britain
- European Civil War
- European interwar dictatorships
- Interwar United States
- Lost Generation
- Interbellum Generation
- Greatest Generation
- Interwar Poland
- Interwar Belgium
- Second Thirty Years' War
- 1920s in Western fashion
- 1930–45 in Western fashion
- Great Depression
- Political history of the world
- Apocalypse: Never-Ending War 1918–1926
Timelines
Notes
- For a guide to the reliable sources see Jacobson (1983).[86]
References
- ^ Simonds, Frank H. (9 November 1919). "A Year After the Armistice—The Unsettled Disputes". New-York Tribune. p. 26. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
- ISBN 0-300-04144-6.
- ISBN 0-19-913425-1. Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2019. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
- ISBN 0-07-052266-9.
- JSTOR 1889320.
- .
- ISBN 0-271-02339-2.
- ISBN 978-0-500-23855-4.
- ^ Price, S (1999). "What made the twenties roar?". Scholastic Update. 131 (10): 3–18.
- ISBN 0-691-05220-4.
- ISBN 9781444391671. Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ISBN 9780748733866. Archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
- ISBN 978-1285415550. Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ISBN 9781317213260. Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ISBN 9780415438896. Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ^ ISBN 0-15-136903-8.
- ^ Duhigg, Charles (23 March 2008). "Depression, You Say? Check Those Safety Nets". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
- ^ Lowenstein, Roger (14 January 2015). "Economic History Repeating". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-07-319397-7.
- ^ "Commodity Data". US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
- ^ Cochrane, Willard W. (1958). Farm Prices, Myth and Reality. University of Minnesota Press. p. 15.
- ^ "World Economic Survey 1932–33". League of Nations: 43.
- OCLC 179092.
- ISBN 0-312-40635-5.
- ^ Mowat, C. L., ed. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945.
- ISBN 978-0-415-73830-9.
- ISBN 0-299-14870-X.
- ^ Soucy, Robert (2015). "Fascism". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
- ISBN 0-297-00124-8.
- ISBN 0-375-75515-2.
- ISBN 0-394-53550-2.
- ISBN 0-8131-9139-4.
- ^ Brown, Judith; Louis, Wm Roger, eds. (1999). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century. pp. 1–46.
- ISBN 0-415-13102-2.
- ISBN 1-84511-347-0.
- ISBN 0-19-568367-6.
- .
- ^ a b c Mowat, C. L. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945 (2nd ed.). – 25 chapters; 845 pp
- ISBN 0-8415-0020-7.
- OCLC 399044.
- ISBN 978-1439084755. excerpt pp. 774–845
- ^ Herbert Ingram Priestley, France overseas: a study of modern imperialism (1938) pp 440–41.
- (in French). Retrieved 3 November 2010.
- ^ Statistique générale de la France. "Code Officiel Géographique – La IIIe République (1919–1940)" (in French). Retrieved 3 November 2010.
- ISBN 9781598843361. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
- ISBN 0-312-04470-4.
- ISBN 978-0-691-15796-2.
- ISBN 978-0-19-928007-0.
- ^ Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (2005) and Evans, The Third Reich in Power (2006).
- ^ Gerhard L. Weinberg, Hitler's foreign policy 1933–1939: The road to World War II. (2013), Originally published in two volumes.
- ^ a b Donald Cameron Watt, How war came: the immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938–1939 (1989).
- ^ a b R.J. Overy, The Origins of the Second World War (2014).
- ^ Lowe, pp. 191–199[full citation needed]
- ^ ISBN 0-297-78005-0.
- ^ ISBN 0-8014-3772-5.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-16111-8.
- ^ Millett, Allan R.; Murray, Williamson (2010). Military Effectiveness. Vol. 2 (New ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 184.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-275-94877-1. Archivedfrom the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ ISBN 0-8131-9139-4.
- ISBN 0-415-18078-3.
- ^ Bosworth, R. J. B. (2009). The Oxford Handbook of Fascism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 246.
- ISBN 0-393-32396-X.
- ^ The Road to Oran: Anglo-Franch Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940. p. 24.
- ^ ISBN 0-8014-3772-5.
- ^ a b "French Army breaks a one-day strike and stands on guard against a land-hungry Italy". Life. 19 December 1938. p. 23.
- ^ Tomes, Jason (2001). "The Throne of Zog". History Today. 51 (9): 45–51.
- ISBN 1-55753-141-2.
- S2CID 144182598.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-1992-8185-5. Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ OCLC 13613258.
- ISBN 9780719046728. Archivedfrom the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
- JSTOR 44288722.
- S2CID 146638943.
- ISBN 978-1-135-63490-2. Archivedfrom the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
- OCLC 394264.
- ^ Lester D. Langley, The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934 (2001)
- ISBN 0-521-53274-4.
- ^ S2CID 145309305.
- ^ S2CID 149372568.
- ^ Sanhueza, Carlos (2011). "El debate sobre "el embrujamiento alemán" y el papel de la ciencia alemana hacia fines del siglo XIX en Chile" (PDF). Ideas viajeras y sus objetos. El intercambio científico entre Alemania y América austral. Madrid–Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana–Vervuert (in Spanish). pp. 29–40.
- ISBN 978-0-8229-6337-0.
- S2CID 144085742.
- S2CID 161584922.
- S2CID 162747279.
- from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ Jon Jacobson, "Is there a New International History of the 1920s?." American Historical Review 88.3 (1983): 617–645 online Archived 3 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
Further reading
- Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
- Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow
- Berg-Schlosser, Dirk, and Jeremy Mitchell, eds. Authoritarianism and democracy in Europe, 1919–39: Comparative Analyses (Springer, 2002).
- Berman, Sheri. The Social Democratic Moment: Ideas and Politics in the Making of Interwar Europe (Harvard UP, 2009).
- Bowman, Isaiah. The New World: Problems in Political Geography (4th ed. 1928) sophisticated global coverage; 215 maps; online
- Brendon, Piers. The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s (2000) a comprehensive global political history; 816pp excerpt
- Cambon, Jules, ed The Foreign Policy of the Powers (1935) Essays by experts that cover France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Russia and the United States Online free
- Clark, Linda Darus, ed. Interwar America: 1920–1940: Primary Sources in U.S. History (2001)
- Dailey, Andy, and David G. Williamson. (2012) Peacemaking, Peacekeeping: International Relations 1918–36 (2012) 244 pp; textbook, heavily illustrated with diagrams and contemporary photographs and colour posters.
- Doumanis, Nicholas, ed. The Oxford Handbook of European History, 1914–1945 (Oxford UP, 2016).
- Duus, Peter, ed., The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 6, The Twentieth Century (1989) pp 53–153, 217–340. online
- Feinstein, Charles H., Peter Temin, and Gianni Toniolo. The World Economy Between the World Wars (Oxford UP, 2008), a standard scholarly survey.
- Freeman, Robert. The InterWar Years (1919–1939) (2014), brief survey
- Garraty, John A. The Great Depression: An Inquiry into the Causes, Course, and Consequences of the Worldwide Depression of the Nineteen-1930s, As Seen by Contemporaries (1986).
- Gathorne-Hardy, Geoffrey Malcolm. A Short History of International Affairs, 1920 to 1934 (Oxford UP, 1952).
- Grenville, J. A. S. (2000). A History of the World in the Twentieth Century. pp. 77–254. Online free to borrow
- Grift, Liesbeth van de, and Amalia Ribi Forclaz, eds. Governing the Rural in Interwar Europe (2017)
- Grossman, Mark ed. Encyclopedia of the Interwar Years: From 1919 to 1939 (2000).
- Hasluck, E. L. Foreign Affairs 1919 to 1937 (Cambridge University Press, 1938).
- Hicks, John D. Republican Ascendancy, 1921–1933 (1960) for USA online
- Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1994). The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914–1991. – a view from the Left.
- Kaser, M. C. and E. A. Radice, eds. The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919–1975: Volume II: Interwar Policy, The War, and Reconstruction (1987)
- Keylor, William R. (2001). The Twentieth-Century World: An International History (4th ed.).
- Koshar, Rudy. Splintered Classes: Politics and the Lower Middle Classes in Interwar Europe (1990).
- ISBN 978-1408868560.
- Luebbert, Gregory M. Liberalism, Fascism, Or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (Oxford UP, 1991).
- Marks, Sally (2002). The Ebbing of European Ascendancy: An International History of the World 1914–1945. Oxford UP. pp. 121–342.
- Matera, Marc, and Susan Kingsley Kent. The Global 1930s: The International Decade (Routledge, 2017) excerpt
- Mazower, Mark (1997), "Minorities and the League of Nations in interwar Europe", Daedalus, 126 (2): 47–63, JSTOR 20027428
- ISBN 978-0226520001.
- Mowat, C. L.ed. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945 (2nd ed.). – 25 chapters by experts; 845 pp; the first edition (1960) edited by David Thompson has the same title but numerous different chapters.
- Mowat, Charles Loch. Britain Between the Wars, 1918–1940 (1955), 690pp; thorough scholarly coverage; emphasis on politics. Britain between the Wars, 1918–1940 at the Wayback Machine (archived 24 June 2018); also online free to borrow
- Murray, Williamson and Allan R. Millett, eds. Military Innovation in the Interwar Period (1998)
- Newman, Sarah, and Matt Houlbrook, eds. The Press and Popular Culture in Interwar Europe (2015)
- Overy, R. J. The Inter-War Crisis 1919–1939 (2nd ed. 2007)
- Rothschild, Joseph. East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars (U of Washington Press, 2017).
- Seton-Watson, Hugh. (1945) Eastern Europe Between The Wars 1918–1941 (1945) online
- Somervell, D.C. (1936). The Reign of King George V. – 550 pp; wide-ranging political, social and economic coverage of Britain, 1910–35
- Sontag, Raymond James. A Broken World, 1919–1939 (1972) online free to borrow; wide-ranging survey of European history
- Sontag, Raymond James. "Between the Wars." Pacific Historical Review 29.1 (1960): 1–17 online.
- Steiner, Zara. The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Toynbee, A. J. Survey of International Affairs 1920–1923 (1924) online; Survey of International Affairs annual 1920–1937 online; Survey of International Affairs 1924 (1925); Survey of International Affairs 1925 (1926) online; Survey of International Affairs 1924 (1925) online; Survey of International Affairs 1927 (1928) online; Survey of International Affairs 1928 (1929) online; Survey of International Affairs 1929 (1930) online; Survey of International Affairs 1932 (1933) online; Survey of International Affairs 1934 (1935), focus on Europe, Middle East, Far East; Survey of International Affairs 1936 (1937) online
- Watt, D. C. et al., A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1968) pp. 301–530.
- Wheeler-Bennett, John. Munich: Prologue To Tragedy, (1948) broad coverage of diplomacy of 1930s
- Zachmann, Urs Matthias. Asia after Versailles: Asian Perspectives on the Paris Peace Conference and the Interwar Order, 1919–33 (2017)
Historiography
- Cornelissen, Christoph, and Arndt Weinrich, eds. Writing the Great War – The Historiography of World War I from 1918 to the Present (2020) free download; full coverage for major countries.
- Jacobson, Jon. "Is there a New International History of the 1920s?." American Historical Review 88.3 (1983): 617–645 online.
Primary sources
- Keith, Arthur Berridale, ed. Speeches and Documents On International Affairs Vol-I (1938) online free vol 1 vol 2 online free; all in English translation
External links
- wide range of diplomatic documents from many countries. Archived 7 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Mount Holyoke College edition.
- "Britain 1919 to the present" Several large collections of primary sources and illustrations
- Primary source documents