Inuit
Indigenous people of Siberia |
Inu- ᐃᓄ- / nuna ᓄᓇ "person" / "land" | |
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Person | Inuk ᐃᓄᒃ Dual: Inuuk ᐃᓅᒃ |
People | Inuit ᐃᓄᐃᑦ |
Language | Inuit languages |
Country | Chukotsky District Alaska Inuit Nunangat / ᐃᓄᐃᑦ ᓄᓇᖓᑦ (Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut) Greenland |
Indigenous peoples in Canada |
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Indigenous North Americas Canada portal |
Inuit (
Canadian Inuit live throughout most of Northern Canada in the territory of Nunavut, Nunavik in the northern third of Quebec, Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut in Labrador, and in various parts of the Northwest Territories and Yukon (traditionally), particularly around the Arctic Ocean, in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.[a] These areas are known, primarily by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, as Inuit Nunangat.[11][12] In Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classify Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis.[13][14]
Many individuals who would have historically been referred to as
History
Pre-contact history
Inuit are the descendants of what
Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", people who were taller and stronger than Inuit.[30] Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as "dwarfs".[31] Researchers believe that Inuit society had advantages by having adapted to using dogs as transport animals, and developing larger weapons and other technologies superior to those of the Dorset culture.[32] By 1100 CE, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled.[15] During the 12th century, they also settled in East Greenland.[33][34]
Faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the
In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples.[38][39] It also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition.[40] However a subsequent 2012 genetic analysis showed no genetic link between the Sadlermiut and the Dorset or Tuniit people.[41] In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies.[citation needed]
In Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern "officially recognized" Inuit community in the world is Rigolet[42] in Nunatsiavut.
South of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis. They did not establish stationary communities. In other areas south of the tree line, non-Inuit Indigenous cultures were well established. The culture and technology of Inuit society that served so well in the Arctic were not suited to subarctic regions, so they did not displace their southern neighbors. As a result, being challenged by the groups below the tree line including Chukchi and Siberian Yupik for Russian Iñupiat, Arctic Athabascan and Gwichʼin for Alaskan Iñupiat and Inuvialuit, Cree for Nunavummiut (Nunavut Inuit) and Nunavimmiut (Northern Quebec Inuit), and Innu for Nunatsiavummiut (Labrador Inuit), Inuit did not make significant progress further south.
Inuit had trade relations with more southern cultures; boundary disputes were common and gave rise to aggressive actions. Warfare was not uncommon among those Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit such as the Nunamiut (Uummarmiut), who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in warfare. The more sparsely settled Inuit in the Central Arctic, however, did so less often.
Their first European contact was with the
After about 1350, the climate grew colder during the period known as the Little Ice Age. During this period, Russian and Alaskan natives were able to continue their whaling activities. But, in the high Arctic, Inuit were forced to abandon their hunting and whaling sites as bowhead whales disappeared from Canada and Greenland.[44] These Inuit had to subsist on a much poorer diet, and lost access to the essential raw materials for their tools and architecture which they had previously derived from whaling.[44]
The changing climate forced Inuit to work their way south, pushing them into marginal niches along the edges of the tree line. These were areas First Nations had not occupied or where they were weak enough for Inuit to live near them. Researchers have difficulty defining when Inuit stopped this territorial expansion. There is evidence that Inuit were still moving into new territory in southern Labrador when they first began to interact with European colonists in the 17th century.[citation needed]
Post-contact history
Canada
Early contact with Europeans
The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except for mutual trade. Inuit do not appear to have interfered with their operations, but raided the stations in winter, taking tools and items made of worked iron, which they adapted to their own needs.
Martin Frobisher's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage was the first well-documented contact between Europeans and Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed in Frobisher Bay, Baffin Island, not far from the settlement now called Iqaluit. Frobisher encountered Inuit on Resolution Island where five sailors left the ship, under orders from Frobisher, with instructions to stay clear of Inuit. They became part of Inuit mythology. Inuit oral tradition tells that the men lived among them for a few years of their own free will until they died attempting to leave Baffin Island in a self-made boat and vanished.[49] Frobisher, in an attempt to find the men, captured three Inuit and brought them back to England. They were possibly the first Inuit ever to visit Europe.[50]
The semi-nomadic Inuit were fishermen and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms, and tundra. While there are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and English explorers, fishermen, and whalers, more recent research suggests that the early relations with whaling stations along the Labrador coast and later James Bay were based on a mutual interest in trade.[51] In the final years of the 18th century, the Moravian Church began missionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British[52] who were tired of the raids on their whaling stations. The Moravian missionaries could easily provide Inuit with the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from whaling outposts, materials whose real cost to Europeans was almost nothing, but whose value to Inuit was enormous. From then on, contacts between the national groups in Labrador were far more peaceful.
The exchanges that accompanied the arrival and colonization by the Europeans greatly damaged Inuit way of life. Mass death was caused by the new infectious diseases carried by whalers and explorers, to which the Indigenous peoples had no acquired immunity. The high mortality rate contributed to the enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting effect of Europeans' material wealth and the introduction of different materials. Nonetheless, Inuit society in the higher latitudes largely remained in isolation during the 19th century.
The Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such as Great Whale River (1820), today the site of the twin villages of Whapmagoostui (Cree-majority) and Kuujjuarapik (Inuit-majority), where whale products of the commercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The expedition of 1821–23 to the Northwest Passage led by Commander William Edward Parry twice over-wintered in Foxe Basin.[53] It provided the first informed, sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of Inuit. Parry stayed in what is now Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings, with pen and ink illustrations of Inuit everyday life, and those of George Francis Lyon were widely read after they were both published in 1824.[54] Captain George Comer's Inuk wife Shoofly, known for her sewing skills and elegant attire,[55] was influential in convincing him to acquire more sewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit.
Early 20th century
During the early 20th century a few traders and missionaries circulated among the more accessible bands. After 1904, they were accompanied by a handful of North-West Mounted Police (NWMP). Unlike most Aboriginal peoples in Canada, however, Inuit did not occupy lands that were coveted by European settlers. Used to more temperate climates and conditions, most Europeans considered the homeland of Inuit to be hostile hinterland. Southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucrats and service providers to the people of the North, but very few ever chose to visit there.
Once its more hospitable lands were largely settled, the government of Canada and entrepreneurs began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral territories, especially the fur and mineral-rich hinterlands. By the late 1920s, there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted by traders, missionaries or government agents. In 1939, the
Native customs were worn down by the actions of the RCMP, who enforced
The Second World War to the 1960s
World War II and the Cold War made Arctic Canada strategically important to the great powers for the first time. Thanks to the development of modern long-distance aircraft, these areas became accessible year-round. The construction of
In the 1950s, the
By 1953, Canada's prime minister Louis St. Laurent publicly admitted, "Apparently we have administered the vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind."[62][63] The government began to establish about forty permanent administrative centers to provide education, health, and economic development services.[63] Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north began to congregate in these hamlets.[64]
Regular visits from doctors and access to modern medical care raised the birth rate and decreased the death rate, causing a marked natural increase in the population that made it more difficult for them to survive by traditional means. In the 1950s, the Canadian government began to actively settle Inuit into permanent villages and cities, occasionally against their will (such as in Nuntak and Hebron). In 2005 the Canadian government acknowledged the abuses inherent in these forced resettlements.[65] By the mid-1960s, encouraged first by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finally forced by hunger and required by the police, most Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements. The nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had become a much smaller part of life in the North. Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment were, in the span of perhaps two generations, transformed into a small, impoverished minority, lacking skills or resources to sell to the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for survival.
Although anthropologists like Diamond Jenness (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facing extinction, Inuit political activism was already emerging.
Cultural renewal
In the 1960s, the Canadian government funded the establishment of
Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late 1960s and early 1970s, shortly after the first graduates returned home. They formed new politically active associations in the early 1970s, starting with the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (Inuit Brotherhood and today known as Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami), an outgrowth of the Indian and Eskimo Association of the '60s, in 1971, and more region-specific organizations shortly afterward, including the Committee for the Original People's Entitlement (representing the Inuvialuit),[66] the Northern Quebec Inuit Association (Makivik Corporation) and the Labrador Inuit Association (LIA) representing Northern Labrador Inuit. Since the mid-1980s the Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavut began organizing politically after being geographically cut out of the LIA, however, for political expediency the organization was erroneously called the Labrador Métis Nation. These various activist movements began to change the direction of Inuit society in 1975 with the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. This comprehensive land claims settlement for Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantial administrative autonomy in the new region of Nunavik, set the precedent for the settlements to follow. The northern Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in 1977, although they had to wait until 2005 to have a signed land settlement establishing Nunatsiavut. Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavut is currently in the process of establishing land claims and title rights that would allow them to negotiate with the Newfoundland Government.
Canada's 1982 Constitution Act recognized Inuit as Aboriginal peoples in Canada.
Inuit cabinet members at the federal level
On October 30, 2008,
Nomenclature
The term Eskimo is still used by people,[19][68][69] but in the 21st century, usage in North America has declined.[20][21]
In the United States the term Eskimo was, as of 2016, commonly[19] used to describe Inuit and the Siberian and Alaskan Yupik, and Iñupiat peoples. Eskimo is still used by some groups and organizations to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous Alaskan and Siberian peoples.[68][69]
In 2011, Lawrence Kaplan of the Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks wrote that Inuit was not generally accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo was often used as the term that applied to the Yupik, Iñupiat, and Inuit.[70] Since then Kaplan has updated this to indicate that the term Inuit has gained acceptance in Alaska.[20]
Though there is much debate, the word Eskimo likely derives from a
In Canada and Greenland, Inuit is preferred. Inuit is the
In Alaska, though there has been criticism against Eskimo, it is still commonly used in daily conversation to this day. However, as an alternative word, more specific word describing Alaskan Inuit such as Inupiaq or Inupiaq-Eskimo has been gaining more acceptance as well to distinct themselves from Yup'ik or Unangax.[citation needed]
Cultural history
Languages
Inuit speak
Inupiaq (Inupiatun) is spoken in Russia (extinct) and Alaska, which is one of the 22 official languages of the State of Alaska. In Russia, due to the replacement from their traditional territory in Big Diomede Island to Mainland Russia, Inupiaq language has been nearly extinct with most of them speaking Central Siberian Yupik or Russian predominantly with some Inupiaq linguistic features.
In Canada, three Inuit languages (Inuvialuktun, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut) are spoken. Inuvialuktun is spoken in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Northwest Territories, with official language status from the territorial government. Inuinnaqtun is spoken across the Northwest Territories and the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut with official language status from both territories. Inuktitut, the most widely spoken Inuit language in Canada, however, is an official, and one of two main languages, alongside English, of Nunavut and has its speakers throughout Nunavut, Nunavik (Northern Quebec), Nunatsiavut (Labrador), and the Northwest Territories, where it is also an official language.[82][83][84][85][86][87]
Kalaallisut is the official language of Greenland.
Inuit in Alaska and Northern Canada also typically speak English.[90] In Greenland, Inuit also speak Danish and learn English in school. Inuit in Russia mostly speak Russian and Central Siberian Yupik. Canadian Inuit, particularly those from Nunavik, may also speak Québécois French.
Finally, deaf Inuit use Inuit Sign Language, which is a language isolate and is almost extinct as only around 50 people still use it.[91]
Diet
Inuit have traditionally been fishermen and hunters. They still hunt
In the 1920s, anthropologist
Modern Inuit have lifespans 12 to 15 years shorter than the average Canadian's, which is thought to be influenced by factors such as their diet[101] and limited access to medical services.[102] The life expectancy gap is not closing and remains stagnant.[102][103][104]
Tattoos
The ancient art of face tattooing among Inuit women, which is called
Inuit hunted sea animals from single-passenger, seal-skin covered boats called qajaq (Inuktitut syllabics: ᖃᔭᖅ)[111] which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could be righted by a seated person, even if completely overturned. Because of this property, the design was copied by Europeans and Americans who still produce them under Inuit name kayak.
Inuit also made umiaq ("woman's boat"), larger open boats made of wood frames covered with animal skins, for transporting people, goods, and dogs. They were 6–12 m (20–39 ft) long and had a flat bottom so that the boats could come close to shore. In the winter, Inuit would also hunt sea mammals by patiently watching an aglu (breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals to use them. This technique is also used by the polar bear, who hunts by seeking holes in the ice and waiting nearby.
In winter, both on land and on sea ice, Inuit used
Dogs played an integral role in the annual routine of Inuit. During the summer they became pack animals, sometimes dragging up to 20 kg (44 lb) of baggage and in the winter they pulled the sled. Yearlong they assisted with hunting by sniffing out seals' holes and pestering polar bears. They also protected Inuit villages by barking at bears and strangers. Inuit generally favoured, and tried to breed, the most striking and handsome of dogs, especially ones with bright eyes and healthy coats. Common husky dog breeds used by Inuit were the Canadian Eskimo Dog, the official animal of Nunavut,[113] (Qimmiq; Inuktitut for dog), the Greenland Dog, the Siberian Husky and the Alaskan Malamute.
Industry, art, and clothing
Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides, driftwood, and bones, although some tools were also made out of worked stones, particularly the readily worked soapstone. Walrus ivory was a particularly essential material, used to make knives. Art played a big part in Inuit society and continues to do so today. Small sculptures of animals and human figures, usually depicting everyday activities such as hunting and whaling, were carved from ivory and bone. In modern times prints and figurative works carved in relatively soft stone such as soapstone, serpentinite, or argillite have also become popular.
Traditional
During the winter, certain Inuit lived in a temporary shelter made from snow called an igloo, and during the few months of the year when temperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents, known as tupiq,[114] made of animal skins supported by a frame of bones or wood.[117][118] Some, such as the Siglit, used driftwood,[119] while others built sod houses.[120]
Inuit also used the
Gender roles, marriage, birth, and community
The
The marital customs among Inuit were not strictly monogamous: many Inuit relationships were implicitly or explicitly sexual. Open marriages, polygamy, divorce, and remarriage were known. Among some Inuit groups, if there were children, divorce required the approval of the community and particularly the agreement of the elders. Marriages were often arranged, sometimes in infancy, and occasionally forced on the couple by the community.[123]
Marriage was common for women at puberty and for men when they became productive hunters.
There was also a larger notion of community as, generally, several families shared a place where they wintered. Goods were shared within a household, and also, to a significant extent, within a whole community.
Inuit were
One of the customs following the birth of an infant was for an Angakkuq (shaman) to place a tiny ivory carving of a whale into the baby's mouth, in hopes this would make the child good at hunting. Loud singing and drumming were also customary at birth.[127]Raiding
Virtually all Inuit cultures have oral traditions of raids by other Indigenous peoples, including fellow Inuit, and of taking vengeance on them in return, such as the Bloody Falls massacre. Western observers often regarded these tales as generally not entirely accurate historical accounts, but more as self-serving myths. However, evidence shows that Inuit cultures had quite accurate methods of teaching historical accounts to each new generation.[128] In northern Canada, historically there were ethnic feuds between the Dene and Inuit, as witnessed by Samuel Hearne in 1771.[129] In 1996, Dene and Inuit representatives participated in a healing ceremony to reconcile the centuries-old grievances.[130]
The historic accounts of violence against outsiders make it clear that there was a history of hostile contact within Inuit cultures and with other cultures.[131] It also makes it clear that Inuit nations existed through history, as well as confederations of such nations. The known confederations were usually formed to defend against a more prosperous, and thus stronger, nation. Alternately, people who lived in less productive geographical areas tended to be less warlike, as they had to spend more time producing food.
Justice within Inuit culture was moderated by the form of governance that gave significant power to the elders. As in most cultures around the world, justice could be harsh and often included capital punishment for serious crimes against the community or the individual. During raids against other peoples, Inuit, like their non-Inuit neighbors, tended to be merciless.[132]
Suicide, murder, and death
A pervasive European myth about Inuit is that they killed elderly (senicide) and "unproductive people",[133] but this is not generally true.[134][135][136] In a culture with an oral history, elders are the keepers of communal knowledge, effectively the community library.[137] Because they are of extreme value as the repository of knowledge, there are cultural taboos against sacrificing elders.[138][139]
In Antoon A. Leenaars' book Suicide in Canada he states that "Rasmussen found that the death of elders by suicide was a commonplace among the Iglulik Inuit".[140]
According to Franz Boas, suicide was "not of rare occurrence" and was generally accomplished through hanging.[141] Writing of the Labrador Inuit, Hawkes (1916) was considerably more explicit on the subject of suicide and the burden of the elderly:
Aged people who have outlived their usefulness and whose life is a burden both to themselves and their relatives are put to death by stabbing or strangulation. This is customarily done at the request of the individual concerned, but not always so. Aged people who are a hindrance on the trail are abandoned.
— Leenaars et al., Suicide in Canada[142]
When food is not sufficient, the elderly are the least likely to survive. In the extreme case of famine, Inuit fully understood that, if there was to be any hope of obtaining more food, a hunter was necessarily the one to feed on whatever food was left. However, a common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation was infanticide.[143][144] A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt the child before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that Inuit regularly resorted to infanticide may be due in part to studies done by Asen Balikci,[145] Milton Freeman[146] and David Riches[147] among the Netsilik, along with the trial of Kikkik.[148][149] Other recent research has noted that "While there is little disagreement that there were examples of infanticide in Inuit communities, it is presently not known the depth and breadth of these incidents. The research is neither complete nor conclusive to allow for a determination of whether infanticide was a rare or a widely practiced event."[150] There is no agreement about the actual estimates of the frequency of newborn female infanticide in Inuit population. Carmel Schrire mentions diverse studies ranging from 15–50 per cent to 80 per cent.[151]
Anthropologists believed that Inuit cultures routinely killed children born with physical defects because of the demands of the extreme climate. These views were changed by late 20th century discoveries of burials at an archaeological site. Between 1982 and 1994, a storm with high winds caused ocean waves to erode part of the bluffs near
Health
During the 19th century, the Western Arctic suffered a population decline of close to 90 per cent, resulting from exposure to new diseases, including tuberculosis, measles, influenza, and smallpox. Autopsies near Greenland reveal that, more commonly pneumonia, kidney diseases, trichinosis, malnutrition, and degenerative disorders may have contributed to mass deaths among different Inuit tribes. Inuit believed that the causes of the disease were of a spiritual origin.[155]
Canadian churches and, eventually, the federal government ran the earliest health facilities for Inuit population, whether fully segregated hospitals or "annexes" and wards attached to settler hospitals. These "Indian hospitals" were focused on treating people for tuberculosis, though diagnosis was difficult and treatment involved forced removal of individuals from their communities for in-patient confinement in other parts of the country.
Dr. Kevin Patterson, a physician, wrote an op-ed in The Globe and Mail: "In October (2017) the federal Minister of Indigenous Services, Jane Philpott, announced that in 2015 tuberculosis ... Was 270 times ... More common among the Canadian Inuit than it is among non-Indigenous southern Canadians." The Canadian Medical Association Journal published in 2013 that "tuberculosis among Canadian Inuit has dramatically increased since 1997. In 2010 the incidence in Nunavut ... Was 304 per 100,000—more than 66 times the rate seen in the general population.[156]
Traditional law
- maligait refers to what has to be followed
- piqujait refers to what has to be done
- tirigusuusiit refers to what has to be avoided
If an individual's actions went against the tirigusuusiit, maligait or piqujait, the angakkuq (shaman) might have to intervene, lest the consequences be dire to the individual or the community.[158]
We are told today that Inuit never had laws or "maligait". Why? They say because they are not written on paper. When I think of paper, I think you can tear it up, and the laws are gone. The laws of the Inuit are not on paper.
— Mariano Aupilaarjuk, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut, Perspectives on Traditional Law[159]
Traditional beliefs
The environment in which Inuit lived inspired a
Inuit practiced a form of shamanism based on
Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals integrated into the daily life of the people. These rituals were simple but held to be necessary. According to a customary Inuit saying, "The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls".[163]
By believing that all things, including animals, have souls like those of humans,[164] any hunt that failed to show appropriate respect and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits cause to avenge themselves.
The harshness and unpredictability of life in the Arctic ensured that Inuit lived with concern for the uncontrollable, where a streak of bad luck could destroy an entire community. To offend a spirit was to risk its interference with an already marginal existence. Inuit understood that they had to work in harmony with supernatural powers to provide the necessities of day-to-day life.
Demographics
In total there are about 148,000 Inuit living in four countries, Canada, Greenland, Denmark and the United States.[11][2][3][4]
Country | Region | Inuit population | Inuit population concentration | Inuit territory |
---|---|---|---|---|
Russia | Chukotka Autonomous Okrug | 125[citation needed] | 0.26% | Yes (Big Diomede) |
United States | Alaska | 14,718[4][165] | 2.00% | Yes |
United States | California | 352[citation needed] | <0.01% | No |
United States | Washington | 1,863[4][166] | 0.02% | No |
Canada | Yukon | 260[167] | 0.66% | Inuvialuit Settlement Region (Inuit Nunangat) |
Canada | Northwest Territories | 4,155[167] | 10.29% | Inuvialuit Settlement Region (Inuit Nunangat) |
Canada | Nunavut | 30,865[167] | 84.33% | Inuit Nunangat |
Canada | British Columbia | 1,720[167] | 0.03% | No |
Canada | Alberta | 2,950[167] | 0.07% | No |
Canada | Saskatchewan | 460[167] | 0.04% | No |
Canada | Manitoba | 730[167] | 0.06% | No |
Canada | Ontario | 4,310[167] | 0.03% | No |
Canada | Quebec | 15,800[167] | 0.19% | Nunavik (Inuit Nunangat) |
Canada | Newfoundland and Labrador | 7,330[167] | 1.46% | Nunatsiavut (Inuit Nunangat) |
Canada | New Brunswick | 685[167] | 0.09% | No |
Canada | Nova Scotia | 1,100[167] | 0.12% | No |
Canada | Prince Edward Island | 180[167] | 0.12% | No |
Greenland | Avannaata | 10,693[7] | 92.14% (87.53%) | Yes |
Greenland | Qeqertalik | 6,284[7] | 98.56% (93.63%) | Yes |
Greenland | Qeqqata | 9,252[7] | 98.10% (93.20%) | Yes |
Greenland | Sermersooq | 23,416[7] | 95.20% (90.44%) | Yes |
Greenland | Kujalleq | 6,266[7] | 96.28% (91.47%) | Yes |
Denmark | Nordjylland | 2,168[168] | 0.44% | No |
Denmark | Midtjylland | 3,822[168] | 0.33% | No |
Denmark | Syddanmark | 4,411[168] | 0.34% | No |
Denmark | Sjælland | 2,664[168] | 0.33% | No |
Denmark | Hovedstaden | 5,498[168] | 0.31% | No |
Norway | Oslo | 293[citation needed] | 0.04% | No |
Faroe Islands | Torshavn | 163[citation needed] | 1.16% | No |
Iceland | Reykjavik | 65[citation needed] | 0.03% | No |
Netherlands | North Holland | 14[citation needed] | <0.01% | No |
Canada
As of the 2016 Canadian census[update], there were 65,025 people identifying as Inuit living in Canada. This was up 29.1 per cent from the 2006 Canadian census. Close to three-quarters (72.8 per cent) of Inuit lived in one of the four regions comprising Inuit Nunangat (Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and Inuvialuit Settlement Region). From 2006 to 2016, Inuit population grew by 20.1 per cent inside Inuit Nunangat.[169]
The largest population of Inuit in Canada as of 2016[update] live in Nunavut with 30,140[169] Inuit out of a total population of 35,580 residents.[11][170] Between 2006 and 2016, Inuit population of Nunavut grew by 22.5 per cent.[169] In Nunavut, Inuit population forms a majority in all communities and is the only jurisdiction of Canada where Aboriginal peoples form a majority.[170]
As of 2016[update], there were 13,945 Inuit living in Quebec.[170] The majority, about 11,795, live in Nunavik.[11] Inuit population of Nunavik grew 23.3 per cent between the 2006 and 2016 censuses. This was the fastest growth among all four regions of Inuit Nunangat.[169]
The 2016[update] Canada Census found there were 6,450 Inuit living in Newfoundland and Labrador[170] including 2,285 who live in Nunatsiavut.[11] In Nunatsiavut, Inuit population grew by 6.0 per cent between 2006 and 2016.[169]
As of 2016[update], there were 4,080 Inuit living in the Northwest Territories.[170] The majority, 3,110, live in the six communities of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.[11] Inuit population growth in the region was largely flat between 2006 and 2016.[169]
Outside of Inuit Nunangat, Inuit population was 17,695 as of 2016[update].[11] This was a growth of 61.9 per cent between the 2006 and 2016 censuses.[169] The highest populations of Inuit outside of Inuit Nunangat lived in the Atlantic provinces (30.6 per cent) with 23.5 per cent lived in Newfoundland and Labrador. A further 21.8 per cent outside of Inuit Nunangat lived in Ontario, 28.7 per cent lived in the western provinces, 12.1 per cent lived in Quebec, while 6.8 per cent lived in the Northwest Territories (not including the Inuvialuit region) and Yukon.[169]
Included in the population of Newfoundland and Labrador outside of Inuit Nunangat is the unrecognized Inuit territory of
Greenland
According to the 2018 edition of the CIA World Factbook, Inuit population of Greenland is 88 per cent (50,787) out of a total of 57,713 people.[2] Like Nunavut, the population lives throughout the habitable areas of the region.
Denmark
The population size of Greenlandic people in Denmark varies from source to source between 15,000 and 20,000. According to 2023 figures from Statistics Denmark there are 17,067 people residing in Denmark of Greenlandic Inuit ancestry.[3] Most travel to Denmark for educational purposes, and many remain after finishing their education,[172] which results in the population being mostly concentrated in the big four educational cities of Copenhagen, Aarhus, Odense, and Aalborg, which all have vibrant Greenlandic communities and cultural centers (Kalaallit Illuutaat).
United States
According to the
Governance
The
Canada
While Inuit Nunangat is within Canada, and the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami oversees only the four official regions, there remains NunatuKavut in southern Labrador. NunatuKavummuit retain a treaty with the Crown since 1765,[177] and the NunatuKavut Community Council (NCC) oversees governance in this region.[178]
The
The TFN worked for ten years and, in September 1992, came to a final agreement with the Government of Canada. This agreement called for the separation of the Northwest Territories into an eastern territory whose Aboriginal population would be predominately Inuit,
Greenland
In 1953, Denmark put an end to the colonial status of Greenland and granted home rule in 1979 and in 2008 a self-government referendum was passed with 75 per cent approval. Although still a part of the Kingdom of Denmark (along with Denmark proper and the Faroe Islands), Greenland, known as Kalaallit Nunaat in the Greenlandic language, maintains much autonomy today. Of a population of 56,000, 80 per cent of Greenlanders identify as Inuit. Their economy is based on fishing and shrimping.[181]
The Thule people arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. There they encountered the Norsemen, who had established colonies there since the late 10th century, as well as a later wave of the Dorset people. Because most of Greenland is covered in ice, the Greenland Inuit (or Kalaallit) only live in coastal settlements, particularly the northern polar coast, the eastern Amassalik coast and the central coasts of western Greenland.[182]
Alaska
Inuit of Alaska are the
Genetics
A genetic study published in Science in August 2014 examined a large number of remains from the Dorset culture, Birnirk culture and the Thule people. Genetic continuity was observed between Inuit, Thule and Birnirk, who overwhelmingly carried the maternal haplogroup A2a and were genetically very different from the Dorset. The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, who through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people some time after 1300 AD.[183]
Inuit people tend to have the dry variant of human earwax.[184]
Modern culture
Inuit art, carving, print making, textiles and Inuit throat singing, are very popular, not only in Canada but globally, and Inuit artists are widely known. Canada has adopted some of Inuit culture as national symbols, using Inuit cultural icons like the inuksuk in unlikely places, such as its use as a symbol at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Respected art galleries display Inuit art, the largest collection of which is at the Winnipeg Art Gallery. Their traditional New Year is called Quviasukvik.[185]
Some Inuit languages, such as Inuktitut, appear to have a more secure future in Quebec and Nunavut. There are a number of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as
An important biennial event, the Arctic Winter Games, is held in communities across the northern regions of the world, featuring traditional Inuit and northern sports as part of the events. A cultural event is also held. The games were first held in 1970, and while rotated usually among Alaska, Yukon and the Northwest Territories, they have also been held in Schefferville, Quebec, in 1976, in Slave Lake, Alberta, and a joint Iqaluit, Nunavut-Nuuk, Greenland staging in 2002. In other sporting events, Jordin Tootoo became the first Inuk to play in the National Hockey League in the 2003–2004 season, playing for the Nashville Predators.
Although Inuit life has changed significantly over the past century, many traditions continue. Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit, or traditional knowledge, such as storytelling, mythology, music, and dancing remain important parts of the culture. Family and community are very important. The Inuktitut language is still spoken in many areas of the Arctic and is common on radio and in television programming.
Well-known Inuit politicians include Premier of Nunavut, P.J. Akeeagok, Lori Idlout, member of parliament for the riding of Nunavut, Eva Aariak, Commissioner of Nunavut and Múte Bourup Egede, Prime Minister of Greenland. Leona Aglukkaq, former MP, was the first Inuk to be sworn into the Canadian Federal Cabinet as Health Minister in 2008. In May 2011 after being re-elected for her second term, Aglukkaq was given the additional portfolio of Minister of the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency. In July 2013 she was sworn in as the minister of the environment.[186]
Visual and performing arts are strong features of Inuit culture. In 2002 the first
Recently, there has been an identity struggle among the younger generations of Inuit, between their traditional heritage and the modern society which their cultures have been forced to assimilate into in order to maintain a livelihood. With current dependence on modern society for necessities, (including governmental jobs, food, aid, medicine, etc.), Inuit have had much interaction with and exposure to the
A series of authors have focused upon the increasing myopia in the youngest generations of Inuit. Myopia was almost unknown prior to Inuit adoption of Western culture. Principal theories are the change to a Western style diet with more refined foods, and extended education.[191][192][193]
David Pisurayak Kootook was awarded the Meritorious Service Cross, posthumously, for his heroic efforts in a 1972 plane crash. Other notable Inuit include the freelance journalist Ossie Michelin, whose iconic photograph of the activist Amanda Polchies went viral after the 2013 anti-fracking protests at Elsipogtog First Nation.[194]
Notes
- ^ a b The Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) also includes the Yukon North Slope in the territory of Yukon, which is relatively small compared with the ISR in Northwest Territories and has no communities living within it—but is part of traditional and current Inuvialuit hunting, trapping, fishing, etc. grounds.
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General and cited references
- Alia, Valerie (2009). Names and Nunavut: Culture and Identity in Arctic Canada. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-165-3.
- Billson, Janet Mancini; Mancini, Kyra (2007). Inuit Women: Their Powerful Spirit in a Century of Change. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-3597-8.
- Hessel, Ingo (2006). Arctic Spirit: Inuit Art from the Albrecht Collection at the Heard Museum. Heard Museum. ISBN 978-1-55365-189-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8020-7791-2.
- Leenaars, Antoon A.; Wenckstern, Susanne; Sakinofsky, Isaac; et al., eds. (1998). Suicide in Canada. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7791-2.
- Mitchell, Marybelle (1996). From Talking Chiefs to a Native Corporate Elite: The Birth of Class and Nationalism among Canadian Inuit. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-6580-7.
- Ohokak, Gwen; Kadlun, Margo; Harnum, Betty. Inuinnaqtun to English Dictionary (PDF). Kitikmeot Heritage Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2012.
- Raghavan, Maanasa; DeGiorgio, Michael; Albrechtsen, Anders; et al. (2014). "The genetic prehistory of the New World Arctic". Wikidata Q29606641.
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Further reading
- Briggs, Jean L. (1970). Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-60828-3.
- "Collections: Inuit". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
- Crandall, Richard C. (2000). Inuit Art: A History. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0711-8.
- Eber, Dorothy (1997). Images of Justice: A Legal History of the Northwest Territories and Yellowknife. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-1675-5.
- Eber, Dorothy (2008). Encounters on the Passage: Inuit meet the explorers. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-8798-1.
- Forman, Werner; Burch, Ernest S. (1988). The Eskimos. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2126-0.
- Fossett, Renée (2001). In Order to Live Untroubled: Inuit of the Central Artic 1550 to 1940. University of Manitoba Press. ISBN 978-0-88755-328-8.
- Freeman, Milton M. R. (24 October 2017). "Arctic Indigenous Peoples in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.
- Freeman, Minnie Aodla (24 September 2020). "Inuit". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.
- Hauser, Michael; Holtved, Erik; Jensen, Bent (2010). Traditional Inuit songs from the Thule area. Vol. 2. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-635-2589-3.
- Hund, Andrew (2012). Inuit. Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1412992619.
- Kulchyski, Peter Keith; Tester, Frank J. (2007). Kiumajut (talking Back): Game Management and Inuit Rights, 1900–70. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1241-2.
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