Invasion of Quebec (1775)
Invasion of Quebec, 1775 | |
---|---|
Part of the St. Lawrence River valleys | |
Result | British victory[1] |
- Quebec
- Loyalists
- Hessian troops
- 400 killed
- 650 wounded
- 1,500 captured
- 5,000 infected by smallpox[citation needed]
- 100 killed
- about 230 wounded
- 600 captured[citation needed]
The Invasion of Quebec (June 1775 – October 1776,
Montgomery's expedition set out from Fort Ticonderoga in late August, and in mid-September began besieging Fort St. Johns, the main defensive point south of Montreal. After the fort was captured in November, Carleton abandoned Montreal, fleeing to Quebec City, and Montgomery took control of Montreal before heading for Quebec with an army much reduced in size by expiring enlistments. There he joined Arnold, who had left Cambridge in early September on an arduous trek through the wilderness that left his surviving troops starving and lacking in many supplies and equipment.
These forces joined before Quebec City in December, and they assaulted the city in a snowstorm on the last day of the year. The battle was a disastrous defeat for the Continental Army; Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, while the city's defenders suffered few casualties. Arnold then conducted an ineffectual siege on the city, during which successful propaganda campaigns boosted Loyalist sentiments, and General David Wooster's blunt administration of Montreal served to annoy both supporters and detractors of the Americans.
The British sent several thousand troops under General
Naming
The objective of the American military campaign, control of the British
Background
In the spring of 1775, the American Revolutionary War began with the
Congressional authorization
The
Following the capture of Ticonderoga, Arnold and Allen noted that it was necessary to hold Ticonderoga as a defense against attempts by the British to militarily divide the colonies, and also noted that Quebec was poorly defended. They each separately proposed expeditions against Quebec, suggesting that a force as small as 1200–1500 men would be sufficient to drive the British military from the province. Congress at first ordered the forts to be abandoned,[9] prompting New York and Connecticut to provide troops and material for purposes that were essentially defensive in nature. Public outcries from across New England and New York challenged the Congress to change its position. When it became clear that Guy Carleton, the governor of Quebec, was fortifying Fort St. Johns, and was also attempting to involve the Iroquois in upstate New York in the conflict, Congress decided that a more active position was needed. On June 27, 1775, Congress authorized General Philip Schuyler to investigate, and, if it seemed appropriate, begin an invasion.[10] Benedict Arnold, passed over for its command, went to Boston and convinced General George Washington to send a supporting force to Quebec City under his command.[11]
Defensive preparations
Following the raid on Fort St. Johns, General Carleton was keenly aware of the danger of invasion from the south, and requested, without immediate relief, reinforcements from General
Negotiations for Indian support
Guy Johnson, a Loyalist and British Indian agent living in the Mohawk Valley in New York, was on quite friendly terms with the Iroquois of New York, and was concerned for the safety of himself and his family after it became clear that Patriot sentiment had taken hold in New York. Apparently convinced that he could no longer safely conduct Crown business, he left his estate in New York with about 200 Loyalist and Mohawk supporters. He first went to Fort Ontario, where, on June 17, he extracted from indigenous tribal leaders (mostly Iroquois and Huron) promises to assist in keeping supply and communication lines open in the area, and to support the British in "the annoyance of the enemy".[16] From there he went to Montreal, where, in a meeting with General Carleton and more than 1,500 indigenous peoples, negotiated similar agreements, and delivered war belts "to be held ready for service".[17] However, most of those involved in these agreements were Mohawks; the other tribes in the Iroquois Confederacy largely avoided these conferences, seeking to stay neutral. Many of the Mohawks remained in the Montreal area after the conference; however, when it seemed uncertain whether the Americans would actually launch an invasion in 1775, most of them had returned home by the middle of August.[18]
The Continental Congress sought to keep the
Montgomery's expedition
The primary thrust of the invasion was to be led by General Schuyler, going up Lake Champlain to assault Montreal and then Quebec City. The expedition was to be composed of forces from New York, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, as well as the Green Mountain Boys under Seth Warner, with provisions supplied by New York.[22] However, Schuyler was overcautious, and by mid-August the colonists were receiving reports that General Carleton was fortifying defensive positions outside Montreal,[23] and that some Native tribes had joined with the British.[24]
Approach to St. Johns
On August 25, while Schuyler was at the indigenous peoples conference, Montgomery received word that ships under construction at Fort St. Johns were nearing completion. Montgomery, taking advantage of Schuyler's absence (and in the absence of orders authorizing movement), led 1,200 troops that had mustered at Ticonderoga up to a forward position at Île aux Noix in the Richelieu River, arriving September 4.[25] Schuyler, who was falling ill, caught up with the troops en route. He dispatched a letter to James Livingston, a Canadian prepared to raise local militia forces in support of the American effort, to circulate in the area south of Montreal. The next day, the forces went down the river to Fort St. Johns, where, after seeing the defenses and a brief skirmish in which both sides suffered casualties, they withdrew to Île aux Noix. The skirmish, which involved mostly indigenous people on the British side, was not supported from the fort, prompting the Indians to withdraw from the conflict.[26] Any additional indigenous support for the British was further halted by the timely arrival of Oneidas in the area, who intercepted a Mohawk war party on the move from Caughnawaga toward St. John's. The Oneidas convinced the party to return to their village, where Guy Johnson, Daniel Claus, and Joseph Brant had arrived in an attempt to gain the Mohawks' assistance. Refusing to meet directly with Johnson and Claus, the Oneidas explained to Brant and the Mohawks the terms of the Albany agreement.[27] Brant and the British agents left without any promises of support. (In a more formal snub of the British, the war belt that Guy Johnson gave to the Iroquois in July was turned over to the American Indian commissioners in December 1775.)[28]
Following this first skirmish, General Schuyler became too ill to continue, so he turned command over to Montgomery. Schuyler left for Fort Ticonderoga several days later.[29] After another false start, and the arrival of another 800–1000 men from Connecticut, New Hampshire, and New York, as well as some of the Green Mountain Boys,[30] Montgomery finally began besieging Fort St. Johns on September 17, cutting off its communications with Montreal and capturing supplies intended for the fort. Ethan Allen was captured the following week in the Battle of Longue-Pointe, when, overstepping instructions to merely raise local militia, he attempted to take Montreal with a small force of men.[31] This event resulted in a brief upturn in militia support for the British; but the effects were relatively short-lived, with many deserting again in the following days.[32] After an attempt by General Carleton to relieve the siege failed on October 30, the fort finally surrendered on November 3.[33]
Occupation of Montreal begins
Montgomery then led his troops north and occupied
Before departing Montreal for Quebec City, Montgomery published messages to the inhabitants that the Congress wanted Quebec to join them, and entered into discussions with American sympathizers with the aim of holding a provincial convention for the purpose of electing delegates to Congress. He also wrote to General Schuyler, requesting that a Congressional delegation be sent to take up diplomatic activities.[38]
Much of Montgomery's army departed due to expiring enlistments after the fall of Montreal. He then used some of the captured boats to move towards Quebec City with about 300 troops on November 28, leaving about 200 in Montreal under the command of General David Wooster.[39] Along the way, he picked up James Livingston's newly created 1st Canadian Regiment of about 200 men.[40]
Arnold's expedition
Benedict Arnold, who had been rejected for leadership of the Champlain Valley expedition, returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts, and approached George Washington with the idea of a supporting eastern invasion force aimed at Quebec City.[41] Washington approved the idea, and gave Arnold 1,100 men, including Daniel Morgan's riflemen, for the effort.[42] Arnold's force sailed from Newburyport, Massachusetts to the mouth of the Kennebec River and then upriver to Fort Western (present day Augusta, Maine).
Arnold's expedition was a success in that he was able to bring a body of troops to the gates of Quebec City. However, the expedition was beset by troubles as soon as it left the last significant outposts of civilization in present-day Maine. There were numerous difficult
By the time Arnold reached the outskirts of civilization along the
On December 2, Montgomery finally came down the river from Montreal with 500 troops, bringing captured British supplies and winter clothing. The two forces united, and plans were made for an attack on the city.[46] Three days later the Continental Army again stood on the Plains of Abraham and began to besiege the city of Quebec.[47]
Battle and siege of Quebec
While planning the attack on the city, Christophe Pélissier, a Frenchman living near Trois-Rivières, came to meet with Montgomery. Pélissier, who was politically supportive of the American cause, operated an ironworks at Saint-Maurice. Montgomery discussed the idea of holding the provincial convention with him. Pélissier recommended against holding a convention until after Quebec City had been taken, as the habitants would not feel free to act in that way until their security was better assured.[48] The two did agree to have Pélissier's ironworks provide munitions for the siege, which he did until the Americans retreated in May 1776 (at which time Pélissier also fled, eventually returning to France).[49]
Montgomery joined Arnold and James Livingston in an assault on Quebec City during a snowstorm on December 31, 1775. Outnumbered and lacking any sort of tactical advantage, the Americans were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner, including Daniel Morgan.[50] Following the battle, Arnold sent Moses Hazen and Edward Antill, another expatriate American, to report the defeat and request support to Wooster in Montreal, and also to the Congress in Philadelphia.[51]
Carleton chose not to pursue the Americans, opting instead to stay within the fortifications of the city, and await reinforcements that might be expected to arrive when the river thawed in the spring. Arnold maintained a somewhat ineffectual siege over the city, until March 1776, when he was ordered to Montreal and replaced by General Wooster. During these months, the besieging army suffered from difficult winter conditions, and smallpox began to travel more significantly through the camp. These losses were offset by the arrival each month of small companies of reinforcements.[52] On March 14, Jean-Baptiste Chasseur, a miller living downstream from the city, entered Quebec and informed Carleton that there were 200 men on the south side of the river ready to act against the Americans.[53] These men and more were mobilized, but an advance force was defeated in the Battle of Saint-Pierre by a detachment of pro-American local militia that were stationed on the south side of the river.[54]
Congress, even before it learned of the defeat at Quebec, had authorized as many as 6,500 additional troops for service there.[55] Throughout the winter, troops trickled into Montreal and the camp outside Quebec City. By the end of March, the besieging army had grown to almost 3,000, although almost one quarter of these were unfit for service, mainly due to smallpox. An American veteran of the invasion, John Joseph Henry, later recalled that American troops inoculated themselves against smallpox during the campaign "by laceration under the finger nails by means of pins or needles." This practice continued ever after military officials attempted to prohibit it, as it was reducing the invasion force's combat efficiency.[56] Furthermore, James Livingston and Moses Hazen, commanding the 500 Canadians in the army, were pessimistic about the loyalty of their men and the cooperation of the population due to persistent Loyalist propaganda.[57]
Congress was conflicted about requests that Arnold made for a more experienced general officer to lead the siege effort. They first chose
Discontent in Montreal
When General Montgomery left Montreal for Quebec City, he left the administration of the city in the hands of Connecticut's Brigadier General David Wooster. While Wooster at first had decent relations with the community, he took a number of steps that caused the local population to come to dislike the American military presence. After promising American ideals to the population, he began arresting Loyalists and threatening arrest and punishment of anyone opposed to the American cause.[60] He also disarmed several communities, and attempted to force local militia members to surrender their Crown commissions. Those who refused were arrested and imprisoned at Fort Chambly.[61] These and similar acts, combined with the fact that the Americans were paying for supplies and services with paper money rather than coin, served to disillusion the local population about the entire American enterprise. On March 20, Wooster left to take command of the forces at Quebec City, leaving Moses Hazen, who had raised the 2nd Canadian Regiment, in command of Montreal until Arnold arrived on April 19.[62]
On April 29, a delegation consisting of three members of the
The Cedars
Upriver from Montreal were a series of small British garrisons that the Americans had not concerned themselves with during the occupation. As spring approached, bands of
To prevent the flow of supplies to the British forces upriver, and in response to rumours of indigenous peoples gathering, Moses Hazen detached Colonel Timothy Bedel and 390 men to a position 40 miles (64 km) upriver at Les Cèdres (English: The Cedars), where they built a stockaded defense works.[67] Colonel Forster was made aware of these movements by Indian spies and Loyalists, and on May 15 began to move downriver with a mixed force of about 250 Natives, militia, and regulars. In an odd series of encounters known as the Battle of the Cedars, Bedel's lieutenant Isaac Butterfield surrendered this entire force without a fight on the 18th, and another 100 men brought as reinforcements also surrendered after a brief skirmish on the 19th.[68]
Quinze-Chênes
On receiving news of Butterfield's capture, Arnold immediately began assembling a force to recover them, which he entrenched in a position at
Reinforcements arrive at Quebec City
American troops
General John Thomas was unable to move north until late April, due to the icy conditions on Lake Champlain.
General Wooster arrived in the American camp outside Quebec City in early April with reinforcements. Reinforcements continued to arrive from the south in modest numbers, until General Thomas arrived at the end of April and assumed command of a force that was nominally over 2,000 strong, but in reality was significantly diminished by the effects of smallpox and the hardships of the Canadian winter. Rumors began circulating on May 2 that British ships were coming up the river. Thomas decided on May 5 to evacuate the sick to Trois-Rivières, with the rest of the forces to withdraw as soon as practical. Late on that day he received intelligence that 15 ships were 40 leagues below the city, awaiting favorable conditions to come up the river. The pace of camp evacuation took on a sense of urgency early the next day when ship's masts were spotted; the wind had changed, and 3 ships of the fleet had reached the city.[75]
British troops
After news of Lexington and Concord reached London, the government of
Carleton, having been informed of pace of activity in the American camp, rapidly unloaded reinforcements from the arrived ships, and around noon marched with a force of about 900 troops to test the Americans. The American response was essentially panic; a disorganized retreat began that might have ended even more disastrously for the Americans had Carleton pressed his advantage. Hoping to win over the rebels with a lenient attitude,
The Congressional delegation in Montreal, upon hearing this news, determined that holding the Saint Lawrence would no longer be possible, and dispatched only a small number of troops toward Deschambault. Thomas, after waiting for six days for word from Montreal and hearing none, began to withdraw toward Trois-Rivières, but not before having to fight off skirmishers from forces landed from British ships on the river. They reached Trois-Rivières on May 15, where they left the sick, and a detachment of New Jersey troops to defend them. By the 18th, the remaining troops joined reinforcements under General Thompson at Sorel, where on the 21st, a council was held with the Congressional delegates. Thomas contracted smallpox that same day, and died on June 2. He was replaced by Thompson.[81]
Carleton's counteroffensive
Trois-Rivières
On May 6, 1776, a small squadron of British ships under
The Americans at Sorel, on receiving word that a force of "only 300 men" was at Trois-Rivières, thought that they should be able to send a force from Sorel to take Trois-Rivières back. Unaware that major British reinforcements had arrived, and ignorant of the geography around the town, General Thompson led 2,000 men first into a swamp, and then into the teeth of a reinforced, entrenched British army. This disaster included the capture of Thompson and many of his senior officers, as well as 200 men and most of the ships used for the expedition, and forecast the end of the American occupation of Quebec. The American forces at Sorel, now under the command of General Sullivan, retreated.[82] Carleton once again did not press his advantage, even going so far as to eventually return the captives to New York, in great comfort, in August.[83]
Retreat to Crown Point
Early on June 14, Carleton finally sailed his army up the river to Sorel. Arriving late in the day, they discovered that the Americans had abandoned Sorel just that morning, and were retreating up the Richelieu River valley toward Chambly and St. Johns. Unlike the departure from Quebec City, the Americans left in a somewhat orderly manner, although some units were separated from the main force by the arrival of Carleton's fleet, and were forced to march to Montreal to join Arnold's forces.[84] Carleton directed General Burgoyne and 4,000 troops to move up the Richelieu after the retreating Americans, while Carleton continued sailing toward Montreal.[85]
In Montreal, Arnold was ignorant of the events taking place downriver, having recently finished dealing with Forster. A messenger he sent downriver toward Sorel on June 15 for news from General Sullivan spotted Carleton's fleet, escaped to shore, and returned with the news to Montreal on a stolen horse.[85] Within four hours, Arnold and the American forces garrisoned around Montreal had abandoned the city (but not before trying to burn it down), leaving it in the hands of the local militia. Carleton's fleet arrived in Montreal on June 17.[86]
Arnold's troops caught up with the main army near St. Johns on the 17th.[86] Sullivan's army was in no condition to fight, and after a brief council, the decision was made to retreat to Crown Point. The army reportedly got away from St. Johns almost literally moments before the vanguard of Burgoyne's army arrived on the scene.[87]
The remains of the American army arrived at Crown Point in early July, ending a campaign that was described as "a heterogeneal concatenation of the most peculiar and unparalleled rebuffs and sufferings that are perhaps to be found in the annals of any nation", by Isaac Senter, a doctor who experienced much of the campaign.[88] Unfortunately for the Americans, the campaign was not quite ended, since the British were still on the move.
Shipbuilding and politics
The Americans had been careful at every step of the retreat up the Richelieu and across Lake Champlain to deny the British of any significant shipping, burning or sinking any boats they did not take with them. This forced the British to spend several months building ships. Carleton reported to London on September 28 that "I expect our Fleet will soon sail with hopes of success should they come to action".[89] General Arnold, when he and Ethan Allen captured Fort Ticonderoga, had established a small navy that was still patrolling Lake Champlain.
While the British assembled a navy to counteract Arnold's, Carleton dealt with matters in Montreal. Even before the Americans retreated from Quebec City, he formed committees to look into the roles played by local Patriot sympathizers, sending them out into the countryside to arrest active participants in the American action, including those who had detained Loyalists.[90] When he arrived in Montreal, similar commissions were set up.[89]
Valcour Island
General Horatio Gates was given command of the Continental Army's northern forces in early July. He promptly moved the bulk of the army to Ticonderoga, leaving a force of about 300 at Crown Point. The army was busied improving the defenses at Ticonderoga, while Arnold was given the task of building up the American fleet at Crown Point. Throughout the summer, reinforcements poured into Ticonderoga, until the army was estimated to be 10,000 strong.[91] A smaller army of shipwrights labored at Skenesborough (present-day Whitehall) to build the ships needed to defend the lake.[92]
Carleton began to move on October 7. By October 9, the British fleet was on Lake Champlain. In a naval action between Valcour Island and the western shore, beginning on October 11, the British inflicted heavy damage to Arnold's fleet, forcing him to withdraw to Crown Point. Feeling that Crown Point would be inadequate protection against a sustained British attack, he then withdrew to Ticonderoga. British forces occupied Crown Point on October 17.[93]
Carleton's troops remained at Crown Point for two weeks, with some troops advancing to within three miles of Ticonderoga, apparently in an attempt to draw Gates' army out. On November 2, they pulled out of Crown Point and withdrew to winter quarters in Quebec.[94]
Aftermath
The invasion of Quebec ended as a disaster for the Americans, but Arnold's actions on the retreat from Quebec and his improvised navy on Lake Champlain were widely credited with delaying a full-scale British counter thrust until 1777.
A significant portion of the Continental forces at Fort Ticonderoga were sent south with Generals Gates and Arnold in November to bolster Washington's faltering defense of New Jersey. (He had already lost New York City, and by early December had crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, leaving the British free to operate in New Jersey.)[101] Conquering Quebec and other British colonies remained an objective of Congress throughout the war. However, George Washington, who had supported this invasion, considered any further expeditions a low priority that would divert too many men and resources away from the main war in the Thirteen Colonies, so further attempts at expeditions to Quebec were never fully realized.[102]
Several hundred men of British and French descent continued to serve in the ranks of the Continental Army following the retreat of 1776. Under Livingston and Hazen, they served in various theaters of the war, including the siege of Yorktown. Being unable to recover the property they lost in the Province of Quebec, many remained in the army out of necessity and continually pushed American political and military authorities to live up to their financial pledges. At war's end, Canadiens reunited with women and children who had survived on rations in Albany and Fishkill, New York; some accepted the opportunity to settle a northern New York tract designated for "refugees" from Canada and Nova Scotia.[103]
During the Paris peace talks, American negotiators, including Benjamin Franklin, unsuccessfully demanded all of Quebec as part of the war spoils. In the end, only portions of southwestern Quebec were ceded by Britain to the new United States.[104] In the War of 1812 the Americans launched another invasion of British North America, and again expected the local populace to support them. That failed invasion is now regarded as a significant event in Canadian history; it has even been claimed as the birth of modern Canadian identity.[105]
See also
- American Revolutionary War#Early engagements
- Fenian raids
- Heritage Minutes
- History of Canada
- History of the United States
- List of American Revolutionary War battles
- Military history of Canada
- Military history of the United States
Notes
- ^ Davies, Blodwen (1951). Quebec: Portrait of a Province. Greenberg. p. 32.Carleton's men had won a quick and decisive victory
- ^ The Continental Army strength is difficult to count, owing to the number of times reinforcements were sent, and the number of sick that were sent home or died. As of May 1776, the army was estimated to be 5,000, with a significant percentage unfit for duty (Smith, Vol 2, p. 351), but this does not include forces that went home because of sickness or ending enlistments, were killed or captured in previous action, or turned back on Arnold's expedition. In June 1776, John Sullivan arrived at Sorel with over 3,000 men (Smith, Vol 2, p. 390). Given that Arnold's expedition lost 500 men (Smith, Vol 1, p 152), and over 400 were captured in the Battle of Quebec, and at least 900 men were sent home sick during the Siege of Fort St. Jean, 10,000 is a reasonable estimated of the number of troops sent to Quebec. The number of effective troops at any one time was generally much lower.
- ^ British forces at the beginning of the invasion were 700 regulars according to Simeon, p. vii. These were augmented by militia support at Fort St. Johns and Quebec, raising total force to 1,800 for the major actions (Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 342–3 and Alden, p. 209). Reinforcements arriving by June 1776 under Charles Douglas and John Burgoyne raised total troops to 10,000, plus militia and Indians (Smith (1907), vol 2, p. 430).
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 242
- ^ Kingsford (vol 5), pp. 1–10
- ^ Kingsford (vol 5), p. 391
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 182–183
- ^ Alden, pp. 195–198
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 178
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 179–242
- ^ a b Alden, p. 202
- ^ Coffin, pp. 496–497
- ^ Alden, p. 199
- ^ Lanctot, p. 53
- ^ O'Toole, 240, 374n2.
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 293
- ^ a b c Glatthaar (2006), p. 91
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 295–296
- ^ Glatthaar (2006), pp. 91–93
- ^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 93
- ^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 94
- ^ Lossing, pp. 227–228
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 309–310
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 291–292
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 317–324.
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 357
- ^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 97
- ^ Glatthaar (2006), p. 98
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 335
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 361–365
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 384
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 388, 410
- ^ Lossing, p. 229
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 474
- ^ Stanley, pp. 67–70
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 487–490
- ^ Everest, pp. 31–33
- ^ Gabriel, p. 141
- ^ Shelton, pp. 122–127
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 2, p. 86
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, pp. 398–399
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 1, p. 515
- ^ Arnold's expedition is described in detail in e.g. Smith (1903) and Desjardins (2006).
- ^ Simeon, p. xiv
- ^ Kingsford (vol 5), p. 463
- ^ Alden, p. 206
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 2, p. 98
- ^ Gabriel, pp. 185–186
- ^ Proc. RSC 1886, pp. 85–86
- ^ Smith (1907), vol 2, pp. 111–147
- ^ Everest, p. 35
- ^ Lanctot, p. 126
- ^ Lanctot, p. 130
- ^ Lanctot, pp. 131–132
- ^ Nelson, p. 167
- ISBN 978-1-46680-804-1.
- ^ Lanctot, p. 133
- ^ a b Nelson, p. 173
- ^ Winsor, pp. 168–172
- ^ Stanley, p. 110
- ^ Stanley, p. 111
- ^ Stanley, pp. 112–113
- ^ Stanley, p. 115
- ^ a b Lanctot, p. 141
- ^ Stanley, p. 116
- ^ Stanley, p. 117
- ^ a b Stanley, p. 118
- ^ Stanley, pp. 119–121
- ^ Stanley, pp. 121–123
- ^ Nelson, p. 184
- ^ Nelson, pp. 187–188
- ^ Nelson, p. 188
- ^ Nelson, p. 189
- ^ Nelson, p. 210
- ^ a b Smith (1907), vol 2, pp. 294–295
- ^ Nickerson, p. 46
- ^ Nickerson, p. 92
- ^ Ketchum, pp. 89–96
- ^ a b Lanctot, p. 139
- ^ Smith (1907), volume 2, pp. 345–346
- ^ a b Stanley, pp. 126–127
- ^ Stanley, pp. 127–128
- ^ Stanley, p. 128
- ^ Stanley, p. 129
- ^ a b Stanley, p. 130
- ^ a b Stanley, p. 131
- ^ Stanley, p. 132
- ^ Stanley, pp. 132–133
- ^ a b Stanley, p. 134
- ^ Stanley, p. 124
- ^ Stanley, p. 136
- ^ Nelson, p. 228
- ^ Stanley, pp. 137–143
- ^ Stanley, p. 144
- ^ Morrissey, p. 87
- ^ "Gen. George Washington - A Threat of Bioterrorism, 1775". EYEWITNESS, US National Archives. Retrieved 10 August 2021
- ^ Debora Mackenzie, "17th century plot to use plague hats as bioweapons revealed" New Scientist, 25 November 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2021
- ^ "Smallpox". The Washington Library at Mount Vernon. Retrieved 10 August 2021
- ^ Nickerson, p. 71
- ^ Nickerson, p. 102
- ^ Winsor, pp. 367–373
- ^ Smith (1907), volume 2, pp. 459–552
- S2CID 159066318.
- ^ Rideau, Roger. A Brief History of Canada. Facts on File. pp. 98–9.
- ^ Dale, p. 8
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- Stanley, George (1973). Canada Invaded 1775–1776. Hakkert.
- Thayer, Simeon; Stone, Edwin Martin; Rhode Island Historical Society (1867). The Invasion of Canada in 1775: Including the Journal of Captain Simeon Thayer, Describing the Perils and Sufferings of the Army Under Colonel Benedict Arnold, in Its March Through the Wilderness to Quebec. Providence, RI: Knowles, Anthony & Co.
- Winsor, Justin (1888). Narrative and Critical History of America: The United States of North America. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin. OCLC 1390579.
Further reading
- Anderson, Mark R (2013). Battle for the Fourteenth Colony: America's War of Liberation in Canada, 1774–1776. Hanover: University Press of New England. ISBN 978-1611684971.
- Bird, Harrison (1968). Attack on Quebec. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Codman, John 2nd (1902). William Abbatt (ed.). Arnold's Expedition to Quebec (2nd ed.). New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC 1287849333.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - Desjardin, Thomas A (2006). Through a Howling Wilderness: Benedict Arnold's March to Quebec, 1775. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-33904-6.
- Hatch, Robert McConnell (1979). Thrust for Canada: The American Attempt on Quebec in 1775–1776. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-27612-8.
- Roberts, Kenneth Lewis (1980). ISBN 978-0-89272-083-5.
- Rumilly, Robert (1970). Histoire de Montréal (in French). Vol. 2. Montreal: Fides.