Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord | |||||||
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Part of the LSTs with barrage balloons deployed, unloading supplies on Omaha Beach for the breakout from Normandy | |||||||
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Axis Germany Italian Social Republic[a] | |||||||
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Casualties and losses | |||||||
16,714 Allied airmen killed (8,536 members of the USAAF, and 8,178 flying under the command of the RAF) |
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Civilian deaths: |
Operation Overlord was the codename for the Battle of Normandy, the Allied operation that launched the successful liberation of German-occupied Western Europe during World War II. The operation was launched on 6 June 1944 (D-Day) with the Normandy landings (Operation Neptune). A 1,200-plane airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault involving more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June, and more than two million Allied troops were in France by the end of August.
The decision to undertake cross-channel landings in 1944 was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, and General Bernard Montgomery was named commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all the land forces involved in the operation. The coast of Normandy of northwestern France was chosen as the site of the landings, with the Americans assigned to land at sectors codenamed Utah and Omaha, the British at Sword and Gold, and the Canadians at Juno. To meet the conditions expected on the Normandy beachhead, special technology was developed, including two artificial ports called Mulberry harbours and an array of specialised tanks nicknamed Hobart's Funnies. In the months leading up to the landings, the Allies conducted Operation Bodyguard, a substantial military deception that used electronic and visual misinformation to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. Adolf Hitler placed Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of developing fortifications all along Hitler's proclaimed Atlantic Wall in anticipation of landings in France.
The Allies failed to accomplish their objectives for the first day, but gained a tenuous foothold that they gradually expanded when they captured the port at Cherbourg on 26 June and the city of Caen on 21 July. A failed counterattack by German forces in response to Allied advances on 7 August left 50,000 soldiers of the German 7th Army trapped in the Falaise pocket by 19 August. The Allies launched a second invasion from the Mediterranean Sea of southern France (code-named Operation Dragoon) on 15 August, and the Liberation of Paris followed on 25 August. German forces retreated east across the Seine on 30 August 1944, marking the close of Operation Overlord.
Preparations for D-Day
In June 1940, Germany's leader
Those attending the
The Pas de Calais, the closest point in continental Europe to Britain, was the location of launch sites for V-1 and V-2 rockets, then still under development.[e] The Germans regarded it as the most likely initial landing zone and accordingly made it the most heavily fortified region;[44] however, it offered the Allies few opportunities for expansion as the area is bounded by numerous rivers and canals.[45] On the other hand, landings on a broad front in Normandy would permit simultaneous threats against the port of Cherbourg, coastal ports further west in Brittany, and an overland attack towards Paris and eventually into Germany. The Allies therefore chose Normandy as the landing site.[46] The most serious drawback of the Normandy coast – the lack of port facilities – would be overcome through the development and deployment of artificial harbours.[47]
The COSSAC staff planned to begin the invasion on 1 May 1944.[45] The initial draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF).[48] General Bernard Montgomery was named commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion.[49] On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the COSSAC plan, which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions, with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up the capture of the port at Cherbourg. This significant expansion required the acquisition of additional landing craft, which caused the invasion to be delayed by a month until June 1944.[49] Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the Battle of Normandy: 22 American, 12 British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops.[50][51][f]
Allied invasion plan
"Overlord" was the name assigned to the establishment of a large-scale lodgement on the Continent.[54] The first phase, the amphibious invasion and establishment of a secure foothold, was code-named Operation Neptune[47] and is often referred to as "D-Day". To gain the required air superiority needed to ensure a successful invasion, the Allies launched a strategic bombing campaign (codenamed Pointblank) to target German aircraft-production, fuel supplies, and airfields. Under the Transport Plan, communications infrastructure and road and rail links were bombed to cut off the north of France and to make it more difficult to bring up reinforcements. These attacks were widespread so as to avoid revealing the exact location of the invasion.[47] Elaborate deceptions were planned to prevent the Germans from determining the timing and location of the invasion.[55]
The coastline of Normandy was divided into seventeen sectors, with codenames using a spelling alphabet—from Able, west of Omaha, to Roger on the east flank of Sword. Eight further sectors were added when the invasion was extended to include Utah on the Cotentin Peninsula. Sectors were further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green, Red, and White.[56]
Allied planners envisaged preceding the sea-borne landings with airborne drops: near Caen on the eastern flank to secure the
The invasion fleet, led by Admiral Sir
Reconnaissance
The Allied Expeditionary Air Force undertook over 3,200 photo-reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until the start of the invasion. Photos of the coastline were taken at extremely low altitude to show the invaders the terrain, obstacles on the beach, and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements. To avoid alerting the Germans as to the location of the invasion, this work had to be undertaken over the entire European coastline. Inland terrain, bridges, troop emplacements, and buildings were also photographed, in many cases from several angles, to give the Allies as much information as possible.[65] Members of Combined Operations Pilotage Parties clandestinely prepared detailed harbour maps, including depth soundings.[66]
An appeal for holiday pictures and postcards of Europe announced on the
Many German radio messages were encoded using the Enigma machine and other enciphering techniques and the codes were changed frequently. A team of code breakers stationed at Bletchley Park worked to break codes as quickly as possible to provide advance information on German plans and troop movements. British military intelligence code-named this information Ultra intelligence as it could only be provided to the top level of commanders. The Enigma code used by Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, Oberbefehlshaber West (Supreme Commander West; OB West), commander of the Western Front, was broken by the end of March. German intelligence changed the Enigma codes right after the Allied landings of 6 June but by 17 June the Allies were again consistently able to read them.[68]
Technology
In response to the lessons learned at the disastrous
The British military built a series of specialised tanks, nicknamed
Deception
In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted
The Germans thought they had an extensive network of spies operating in the UK, but in fact, all their agents had been captured, and some had become double agents working for the Allies as part of the Double-Cross System. The double agent Juan Pujol García, a Spanish opponent of the Nazis known by the code name "Garbo", developed over the two years leading up to D-Day a fake network of informants that the Germans believed were collecting intelligence on their behalf. In the months preceding D-Day, Pujol sent hundreds of messages to his superiors in Madrid, messages specially prepared by the British intelligence service to convince the Germans that the attack would come in July at Calais.[81][83]
Many of the German radar stations on the French coast were destroyed by the RAF in preparation for the landings.
Rehearsals and security
Training exercises for the Overlord landings took place as early as July 1943.[86] As the nearby beach resembled the planned Normandy landing-site, the town of Slapton in Devon, was evacuated in December 1943, and taken over by the armed forces as a site for training exercises that included the use of landing craft and the management of beach obstacles.[87] A friendly fire incident there on 27 April 1944 resulted in as many as 450 deaths.[88] The following day, an additional estimated 749 American soldiers and sailors died when German torpedo-boats surprised members of Assault Force "U" conducting Exercise Tiger.[89][90] Exercises with landing craft and live ammunition also took place at the Combined Training Centre in Inveraray in Scotland.[91] Naval exercises took place in Northern Ireland, and medical teams in London and elsewhere rehearsed how they would handle the expected waves of casualties.[92] Paratroopers conducted exercises, including a huge demonstration drop on 23 March 1944 observed by Churchill, Eisenhower, and other top officials.[93]
Allied planners considered tactical surprise to be a necessary element of the plan for the landings.[94] Information on the exact date and location of the landings was provided only to the topmost levels of the armed forces. Men were sealed into their marshalling areas at the end of May, with no further communication with the outside world.[95] Troops were briefed using maps that were correct in every detail except for the place names, and most were not told their actual destination until they were already at sea.[96] A news blackout in Britain increased the effectiveness of the deception operations.[55] Travel to and from the Republic of Ireland was banned, and movement within several kilometres of the coast of England restricted.[97]
Weather forecasting
The invasion planners specified a set of conditions regarding the timing of the invasion, deeming only a few days in each month suitable. A full moon was desirable, as it would provide illumination for aircraft pilots and have the
By the evening of 4 June, the Allied meteorological team, headed by Group Captain James Stagg of the Royal Air Force, predicted that the weather would improve sufficiently so that the invasion could go ahead on 6 June. He met Eisenhower and other senior commanders at their headquarters at Southwick House in Hampshire to discuss the situation.[100] General Montgomery and Major-General Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower's chief of staff, were eager to launch the invasion. Admiral Bertram Ramsay was prepared to commit his ships, while Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory expressed concern that the conditions would be unfavourable for Allied aircraft. After much discussion, Eisenhower decided that the invasion should go ahead.[101] Allied control of the Atlantic meant that German meteorologists did not have access to as much information as the Allies on incoming weather patterns.[84] As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris predicted two weeks of stormy weather, many Wehrmacht commanders left their posts to attend war games in Rennes, and men in many units were given leave.[102] Marshal Erwin Rommel returned to Germany for his wife's birthday and to meet Hitler to try to get more tanks.[103]
Had Eisenhower postponed the invasion again, the next available period with the right combination of tides (but without the desirable full moon) was two weeks later, from 18 to 20 June. As it happened, during this period the invaders would have encountered a major storm lasting four days, between 19 and 22 June, that would have made the initial landings impossible.[99]
German preparations and defences
Nazi Germany had at its disposal 50 divisions in France and the Low Countries, with another 18 stationed in Denmark and Norway.[g] Fifteen divisions were in the process of formation in Germany, but there was no strategic reserve.[104] The Calais region was defended by the 15th Army under Generaloberst (Colonel General) Hans von Salmuth, and Normandy by the 7th Army commanded by Generaloberst Friedrich Dollmann.[105][106] Combat losses throughout the war, particularly on the Eastern Front, meant the Germans no longer had a pool of able young men from which to draw. German soldiers were now on average six years older than their Allied counterparts. Many in the Normandy area were Ostlegionen (eastern legions)—conscripts and "volunteers" from Turkestan,[107] Russia, Mongolia, and elsewhere. The Wehrmacht had provided them mainly with unreliable captured equipment; they lacked motorised transport.[108] Formations that arrived later, such as the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, were, for the most part, younger and far better equipped and trained than the static troops stationed along the coast.[109]
In early 1944, OB West was significantly weakened by personnel and materiel transfers to the Eastern Front. During the Soviet
The 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, 9th, 11th, 19th and 116th Panzer divisions, alongside the 2nd SS Panzer Division "Das Reich", had only arrived in March–May 1944 to France for extensive refit after being badly damaged during the Dnieper-Carpathian Offensive. Seven of the eleven panzer or panzergrenadier divisions stationed in France were still not fully operational or only partially mobile in early June 1944.[113]
Atlantic Wall
Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942, Hitler ordered the construction of fortifications all along the Atlantic coast, from Spain to Norway, to protect against an expected Allied invasion. He envisioned 15,000 emplacements manned by 300,000 troops, but due to shortages, particularly of concrete and manpower, most of the strongpoints were never built.[114] As the expected site of an Allied invasion, Pas de Calais was heavily defended.[114] In the Normandy area the best fortifications were concentrated at the port facilities at Cherbourg and Saint-Malo.[115]
A report by Rundstedt to Hitler in October 1943 regarding the weak defences in France led to the appointment of Rommel to oversee the construction of further fortifications along the expected invasion-front, which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg.[114][116] Rommel was given command of the newly re-formed Army Group B, which included the 7th Army, the 15th Army, and the forces guarding the Netherlands.[117][118] Nazi Germany's tangled command structure made it difficult for Rommel to achieve his task. He was not allowed to give orders to the Organisation Todt, which was commanded by armaments minister Albert Speer, so in some places he had to assign soldiers to do construction work.[115]
Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore. In addition to concrete gun-emplacements at strategic points along the coast, he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and to impede the movement of tanks.[119] Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high-tide mark.[98] Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry.[119] On Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled.[115] Given the Allied air supremacy (4,029 Allied aircraft assigned to operations in Normandy plus 5,514 aircraft assigned to bombing and defence, versus 570 Luftwaffe planes stationed in France and the Low Countries[98]), booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) were set up in meadows and fields to deter airborne landings.[115]
Mobile reserves
Rommel, believing that the Germans' best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore, requested that mobile reserves—especially tanks—be stationed as close to the coast as possible. Rundstedt, General
Invasion
You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves in a free world.
— Eisenhower, Letter to Allied Forces[123]
By May 1944, 1.5 million American troops had arrived in the United Kingdom.
Beaches
The craft bearing the U.S. 4th Infantry Division assaulting Utah were pushed by the current to a spot about 1,800 metres (2,000 yd) south of their intended landing zone. The troops met light resistance, suffering fewer than 200 casualties.[133][134] Their efforts to push inland fell far short of their targets for the first day, but they were able to advance about 4 miles (6.4 km), making contact with the 101st Airborne Division.[58][135] The airborne landings west of Utah were not very successful, as only ten per cent of the paratroopers landed in their drop zones. Gathering the men together into fighting units was made difficult by a shortage of radios and by the terrain, with its hedgerows, stone walls and marshes.[136][137] The 82nd Airborne Division captured its primary objective at Sainte-Mère-Église and worked to protect the western flank.[138] Its failure to capture the river crossings at the River Merderet resulted in a delay in sealing off the Cotentin Peninsula.[139] The 101st Airborne Division helped protect the southern flank and captured the lock on the River Douve at La Barquette,[137] but did not capture the assigned nearby bridges on the first day.[140]
At
Omaha, the most heavily defended sector, was assigned to the
At Gold, high winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft, and the amphibious DD tanks were landed close to shore or directly on the beach instead of further out as planned.
Landings of infantry at Juno were delayed because of rough seas, and the men arrived ahead of their supporting armour, suffering many casualties while disembarking. Most of the offshore bombardment had missed the German defences. In spite of these difficulties, the Canadians quickly cleared the beach and created two exits to the villages above. Delays in taking Bény-sur-Mer led to congestion on the beach, but by nightfall, the contiguous Juno and Gold beachheads covered an area 12 miles (19 km) wide and 7 miles (10 km) deep.[150] One troop of the 1st Hussar Tank Regiment was the only Allied unit to achieve its objective on the first day of the invasion.[151] Casualties at Juno were 961 men.[152]
On Sword, 21 of 25 DD tanks succeeded in getting safely ashore to provide cover for the infantry, who began disembarking at 07:30. They quickly cleared the beach and created several exits for the tanks. In the windy conditions, the tide came in more quickly than expected, making manoeuvring the armour difficult.
The first components of the Mulberry harbours were brought across on D+1 (7 June) and the structures were in use for unloading by mid-June.[71] One was constructed at Arromanches by the British, the other at Omaha by the Americans. Severe storms on 19 June interrupted the landing of supplies and destroyed the Omaha harbour.[157] The repaired Arromanches harbour was able to receive around 6,000 tons of materiel daily and was in continuous use for the next ten months, but most shipments were brought in over the beaches until the port of Cherbourg was cleared of mines and obstructions on 16 July.[158][159]
Allied casualties on the first day were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead.
Cherbourg
In the western part of the lodgement, US troops were to occupy the Cotentin Peninsula, especially Cherbourg, which would provide the Allies with a deep water harbour. The terrain behind Utah and Omaha was characterised by
Caen
Fighting in the Caen area versus the 21st Panzer, the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and other units soon reached a stalemate.
Breakout from the beachhead
After securing territory in the Cotentin Peninsula south as far as Saint-Lô, the U.S. First Army launched Operation Cobra on 25 July and advanced further south to Avranches by 1 August.[182] The British launched Operation Bluecoat on 30 July to secure Vire and the high ground of Mont Pinçon.[183] Lieutenant General Patton's U.S. Third Army, activated on 1 August, quickly took most of Brittany and territory as far south as the Loire, while the First Army maintained pressure eastward toward Le Mans to protect their flank. By 3 August, Patton and the Third Army were able to leave a small force in Brittany and drive eastward towards the main concentration of German forces south of Caen.[184] Over Kluge's objections, on 4 August Hitler ordered a counter-offensive (Operation Lüttich) from Vire towards Avranches.[185]
While II Canadian Corps pushed south from Caen toward Falaise in Operation Totalize on 8 August,[186] Bradley and Montgomery realised that there was an opportunity for the bulk of the German forces to be trapped at Falaise. The Third Army continued the encirclement from the south, reaching Alençon on 11 August. Although Hitler continued to insist until 14 August that his forces should counter-attack, Kluge and his officers began planning a retreat eastward.[187] The German forces were severely hampered by Hitler's insistence on making all major decisions himself, which left his forces without orders for periods as long as 24 hours while information was sent back and forth to the Führer's residence at Obersalzberg in Bavaria.[188] On the evening of 12 August, Patton asked Bradley if his forces should continue northward to close the gap and encircle the German forces. Bradley refused because Montgomery had already assigned the First Canadian Army to take the territory from the north.[189][190] The Canadians met heavy resistance and captured Falaise on 16 August. The gap was closed on 21 August, trapping 50,000 German troops but more than a third of the German 7th Army and the remnants of nine of the eleven Panzer divisions had escaped to the east.[191] Montgomery's decision-making regarding the Falaise Gap was criticised at the time by American commanders, especially Patton, although Bradley was more sympathetic and believed Patton would not have been able to close the gap.[192] The issue has been the subject of much discussion among historians, criticism being levelled at American, British and Canadian forces.[193][194][195] Hitler relieved Kluge of his command of OB West on 15 August and replaced him with Field Marshal Walter Model. Kluge committed suicide on 19 August after Hitler became aware of his involvement in the 20 July plot.[196][197] An invasion in southern France (Operation Dragoon) was launched on 15 August.[198]
The French Resistance in Paris rose against the Germans on 19 August.[199] Eisenhower initially wanted to bypass the city to pursue other targets, but amid reports that the citizens were going hungry and Hitler's stated intention to destroy it, de Gaulle insisted that it should be taken immediately.[200] French forces of the 2nd Armoured Division under General Philippe Leclerc arrived from the west on 24 August, while the U.S. 4th Infantry Division pressed up from the south. Scattered fighting continued throughout the night, and by the morning of 25 August Paris was liberated.[201]
Operations continued in the British and Canadian sectors until the end of the month. On 25 August, the U.S. 2nd Armored Division fought its way into Elbeuf, making contact with British and Canadian armoured divisions.[202] The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division advanced into the Forêt de la Londe on the morning of 27 August. The area was strongly held; the 4th and 6th Canadian brigades suffered many casualties over the course of three days as the Germans fought a delaying action in terrain well suited to defence. The Germans pulled back on 29 August, withdrawing over the Seine the next day.[202] On the afternoon of 30 August, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division crossed the Seine near Elbeuf and entered Rouen to a jubilant welcome.[203]
Campaign close
Eisenhower took direct command of all Allied ground forces on 1 September. Concerned about German counter-attacks and the limited materiel arriving in France, he decided to continue operations on a broad front rather than attempting narrow thrusts.
The Normandy landings were the largest seaborne invasion in history, with nearly 5,000 landing and assault craft, 289 escort vessels, and 277 minesweepers.[125] The opening of another front in western Europe was a tremendous psychological blow for Germany's military, who feared a repetition of the two-front war of World War I. The Normandy landings also heralded the start of the "race for Europe" between the Soviet forces and the Western powers, which some historians consider to be the start of the Cold War.[207]
Victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D-Day Rommel reported that construction was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere.[208] The deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to defend a huge stretch of coastline.[209] The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority, which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks.[210] Transport infrastructure in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies.[211] Much of the opening artillery barrage was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact,[212] but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches.[213] The indecisiveness and overly complicated command structure of the German high command was also a factor in the Allied success.[214]
Casualties
Allies
From D-Day to 21 August, the Allies landed 2,052,299 men in northern France. The cost of the Normandy campaign was high for both sides.
Germany
Allied forces in northern France reported the capture of 47,000 Germans in June, 36,000 in July, and 150,000 in August, a total of 233,000 for the three months of Overlord.[223] Around 80,000 German soldiers are buried in Normandy, although this figure does include an unreported number of Germans who died prior to the battle and those who died in captivity after the end of the fighting.[224]
German forces in France reported losses of 158,930 men between D-Day and 14 August, just before the start of Operation Dragoon in Southern France.[225] In action at the Falaise pocket, 50,000 men were lost, of whom 10,000 were killed and 40,000 captured.[23] Sources vary on the total German casualties. Niklas Zetterling notes that OB West's figures for summer 1944 in the west (thus including in its scope Operation Dragoon in southern France) amounted to 289,000: 23,019 killed, 67,060 wounded, and 198,616 missing. He states that the record is generally reliable, but also that it might have underestimated losses in some places, such as Cherbourg.[226][i] Zetterling goes on to estimate specifically German army casualties in the Normandy region specifically from June 6 to August as 210,000; however, he also notes that "the Germans most likely suffered further manpower losses when air or naval bases were overrun. On this no figures have been available for this study."[228] Other sources arrive at higher estimates: 400,000 (200,000 killed or wounded and a further 200,000 captured),[206] 500,000 (290,000 killed or wounded, 210,000 captured),[15][j] to 530,000 in total.[230]
There are no exact figures regarding German tank losses in Normandy. Approximately 2,300 tanks and assault guns were committed to the battle,[k] of which only 100 to 120 crossed the Seine at the end of the campaign.[15] While German forces reported only 481 tanks destroyed between D-day and 31 July,[225] research conducted by No. 2 Operational Research Section of 21st Army Group indicates that the Allies destroyed around 550 tanks in June and July[231] and another 500 in August,[232] for a total of 1,050 tanks destroyed, including 100 destroyed by aircraft.[10] Luftwaffe losses amounted to 2,127 aircraft.[24] By the end of the Normandy campaign, 55 German divisions (42 infantry and 13 panzer) had been rendered combat ineffective; seven of these were disbanded. By September, OB West had only 13 infantry divisions, 3 panzer divisions, and 2 panzer brigades rated as combat effective.[233]
Civilians and French heritage buildings
During the liberation of Normandy, between 13,632 and 19,890 French civilians were killed,[27] and more were seriously wounded.[26] In addition to those who died during the campaign, 11,000 to 19,000 Normans are estimated to have been killed during pre-invasion bombing.[26] A total of 70,000 French civilians were killed throughout the course of the war.[26] Land mines and unexploded ordnance continued to inflict casualties upon the Norman population following the end of the campaign.[234]
Prior to the invasion, SHAEF issued instructions (later the basis for the 1954 Hague Convention Protocol I) emphasising the need to limit the destruction to French heritage sites. These sites, named in the Official Civil Affairs Lists of Monuments, were not to be used by troops unless permission was received from the upper echelons of the chain of command.[235] Nevertheless, church spires and other stone buildings throughout the area were damaged or destroyed to prevent them being used by the Germans.[236] Efforts were made to prevent reconstruction workers from using rubble from important ruins to repair roads, and to search for artefacts.[237] The Bayeux Tapestry and other important cultural treasures had been stored at the Château de Sourches near Le Mans from the start of the war, and survived intact.[238] The occupying German forces also kept a list of protected buildings, but their intent was to keep the facilities in good condition for use as accommodation by German troops.[237]
Many cities and towns in Normandy were totally devastated by the fighting and bombings. By the end of the
Looting was perpetrated by all sides: the retreating Germans, the invading Allies, and the local French population.[237] Looting was never condoned by Allied forces, and those who were found to be looting were punished.[240]
War memorials and tourism
The beaches of Normandy are still known by their invasion code names. Significant places have plaques, memorials, or small museums, and guide books and maps are available. Some of the German strong points remain preserved; Pointe du Hoc, in particular, is little changed from 1944. The remains of Mulberry harbour B still sits in the sea at Arromanches. Several large cemeteries in the area serve as the final resting place for many of the Allied and German soldiers killed in the Normandy campaign.[241]
Above the English Channel on a bluff at Omaha Beach, the
See also
- British logistics in the Normandy campaign
- American logistics in the Normandy campaign
- List of Allied forces in the Normandy campaign
- Liberation of France
- Operation Downfall
- Rhino tank
Notes
- ^ The Italian Social Republic forces during Operation Overlord were composed of the 4,000 men of the 1ª Divisione Atlantica Fucilieri di Marina. About 100 of them were stationed on the island of Cézembre.[8] Other forces include former prisoners-of-war put in labor and anti-air units.[9]
- ^ Around 812,000 were American and 640,000 were British or Canadian [10]
- ^ a b American casualties are sourced from the G-3 War Room Summary 91, dated 5 September 1944, covering the campaign.[17] In 1953, the US Statistical and Accounting Branch, Office of the Adjutant General issued a final report on US casualties (excluding Air Force losses) for the period from 6 June to 14 September 1944. This source shows the number killed in action during the Battle of Normandy (6 June – 24 July 1944) as 13,959 and Northern France (25 July to 14 September 1944) as 15,239 for a total of 29,198. Total deaths among battle casualties (including accidental deaths, disease, etc) for Normandy (6 June – 24 July 1944) were 16,293 and in Northern France (25 July – 14 September 1944) were 17,844, for a total of 34,137.[18]
- ^ In addition, the Allied air forces made 480,317 sorties directly connected to the operation, with the loss of 4,101 planes and 16,714 lives. .[22]
- ^ V-weapons were first launched against the UK on 12 June.[43]
- ^ The British 79th Armoured Division never operated as a single formation,[52] and thus has been excluded from the total. In addition, a combined total of 16 (three from the 79th Armoured Division) British, Belgian, Canadian, and Dutch independent brigades were committed to the operation, along with four battalions of the Special Air Service.[53]
- ^ As of November 1943. They also had 206 divisions on the Eastern Front, 24 in the Balkans, and 22 in Italy. .[104]
- ^ British casualties are sourced from "War Diary, 21st Army Group, 'A' Section, SITEP" dated 29 August 1944.[215]
- ^ The German official history stated that Army Group G, which faced the Dragoon landings, suffered 141,000 casualties by mid-September. This figure is based on several internal reports and work conducted by German historians.[227]
- ^ The German official history highlights Allied intelligence reports that indicated OB West lost 400–500,000 men [229]
- ^ The most common tank/assault gun deployed at Normandy by the Germans was by far the Panzer IV, followed by the Panther (650) and Stug III (550). Also present were 120–130 Tiger Is, 20 Tiger IIs, and smaller numbers of other types, including Marder and Jagdpanther self-propelled anti-tank guns. [16]
Citations
- ^ a b Beevor 2009, p. 82.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 76.
- ^ a b c Williams 1988, p. x.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 492.
- ^ Luxembourg Army website.
- ^ a b Meadows 2016.
- ^ Viganò 1991, p. 181.
- ^ Frittoli 2019.
- ^ a b Zetterling 2000, p. 408.
- ^ Badsey 1990, p. 85.
- ^ Zetterling 2000, p. 32.
- ^ Zetterling 2000, p. 34.
- ^ Shulman 2007, p. 192.
- ^ a b c d Wilmot 1997, p. 434.
- ^ a b Buckley 2006, pp. 117–120.
- ^ Pogue 1954, Chapter XIV, footnote 10.
- ^ US Army 1953, p. 92.
- ^ britannica.com.
- ^ a b Stacey 1960, p. 271.
- ^ Maczek 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f Tamelander & Zetterling 2003, p. 341.
- ^ a b c Tamelander & Zetterling 2003, p. 342.
- ^ a b Tamelander & Zetterling 2003, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Zetterling 2000, p. 83.
- ^ a b c d Beevor 2009, p. 519.
- ^ a b Flint 2009, pp. 336–337.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2005, p. 322.
- ^ Churchill 1949, p. 115.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, p. 20.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 8–10.
- ^ Churchill 1951, p. 582.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Beevor 2012, p. 319.
- ^ a b Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 11.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 10.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 177–178, chart p. 180.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 9.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, p. 23.
- ^ Gilbert 1989, pp. 397, 478.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 316.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 33–34.
- ^ a b Wilmot 1997, p. 170.
- ^ Ambrose 1994, pp. 73–74.
- ^ a b c Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 14.
- ^ Gilbert 1989, p. 491.
- ^ a b Whitmarsh 2009, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Weinberg 1995, p. 684.
- ^ Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 521–533.
- ^ Buckley 2006, p. 13.
- ^ Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 521–523, 524.
- ^ Churchill 1951, p. 642.
- ^ a b c d Beevor 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Buckingham 2004, p. 88.
- ^ Churchill 1951, pp. 592–593.
- ^ a b c Beevor 2009, Map, inside front cover.
- ^ Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 78, 81.
- ^ Churchill 1951, p. 594.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, p. 6.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, Map, p. 12.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 25.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 623.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, p. 81.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 21.
- ^ a b Whitmarsh 2009, p. 11.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 181.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 183.
- ^ a b Wilmot 1997, p. 321.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 182.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 195.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 208.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 73.
- ^ Weinberg 1995, p. 680.
- ^ Brown 2007, p. 465.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b Whitmarsh 2009, p. 27.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 282.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 4.
- ^ a b Whitmarsh 2009, p. 34.
- ^ Bickers 1994, pp. 19–21.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, p. 35.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, pp. 50–51, 54–57.
- ^ Lewis 1990, p. 254.
- ^ Fenton 2004.
- ^ Lewis 1990, p. 227.
- ^ Zuehlke 2004, p. 36.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, pp. 59, 61.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 46.
- ^ a b c d Whitmarsh 2009, p. 30.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, pp. 30, 36.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2005, p. 667.
- ^ a b c Whitmarsh 2009, p. 31.
- ^ a b c Whitmarsh 2009, p. 33.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 21.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 224–226.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 131.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 42–43.
- ^ a b Wilmot 1997, p. 144.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 34.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, p. 13.
- ^ Zaloga 2013, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, pp. 16–19.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 37.
- ^ Liedtke 2015, pp. 227–228, 235.
- ^ Liedtke 2015, p. 225.
- ^ Williams 2013, p. 182.
- ^ Liedtke 2015, pp. 224–225.
- ^ a b c Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 30.
- ^ a b c d Whitmarsh 2009, p. 13.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 33.
- ^ Goldstein, Dillon & Wenger 1994, p. 11.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 12.
- ^ a b Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 54–56.
- ^ a b Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 31.
- ^ a b Whitmarsh 2009, p. 15.
- ^ a b Wilmot 1997, p. 192.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 42.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b Beevor 2009, p. 74.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 79.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 51.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 51–52.
- ^ Corta 1952, pp. 157–161.
- ^ Corta 1997, pp. 64–79.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 69.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 70.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 118.
- ^ a b Hughes 2010, p. 5.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 51.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 166–167.
- ^ a b Beevor 2009, p. 116.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 115.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 172.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, Map, p. 170.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 95–104.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 64–65, 334.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 45.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 76–77, 334.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 56, 83.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 337.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 281–282.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 270–273.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 275–276.
- ^ Drez 2005.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 131.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 143, 148.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 326–327.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 283.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 387.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 331.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 87.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 335.
- ^ Horn 2010, p. 13.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 360.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2005, pp. 627–630.
- ^ a b Wilmot 1997, p. 301.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 175.
- ^ Whitmarsh 2009, p. 49.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 118–120.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 179.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 182.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 185–193.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 186.
- ^ Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 247–254.
- ^ Forty 2004, pp. 36, 97.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 342.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 232–237.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 347.
- ^ Copp 2000, p. 73.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 273.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 340–341.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 332–333.
- ^ Beevor 2009, Map, p. 344.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 398–400.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 399–400.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 410.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 434–435.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 416–417.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 440.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 418.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 420.
- ^ Bradley 1951, p. 377.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 439–440.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 424.
- ^ Hastings 2006, p. 369.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, pp. 421, 444.
- ^ Evans 2008, p. 642.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 445, 447.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 429.
- ^ Beevor 2009, pp. 481, 483, 494.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 430.
- ^ a b Stacey 1960, p. 286.
- ^ Stacey 1948, p. 219.
- ^ a b Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 341–342.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 485.
- ^ a b Whitmarsh 2009, p. 109.
- ^ Gaddis 1990, p. 149.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 290.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 343.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 289.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 36.
- ^ Copp 2003, p. 259.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 291.
- ^ Wilmot 1997, p. 292.
- ^ D'Este 2004, pp. 517–518.
- ^ Margolian 1998, pp. 125–155.
- ^ Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 487–488.
- ^ Corta 1997, pp. 288–289.
- ^ Beevor 2009, p. 522.
- ^ D'Este 2004, p. 517.
- ^ Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 488, 493.
- ^ Tamelander & Zetterling 2003, pp. 341–342.
- ^ SHAEF Weekly Intelligence Summary, No.51, w.e. March 11 PART I LAND Section H, Miscellaneous 3 Allied Achievements in the West.
- ^ Inman & Staines 2019, La Cambe German Military Cemetery.
- ^ a b Tamelander & Zetterling 2003, p. 343.
- ^ Zetterling 2000, p. 77.
- ^ Boog, Krebs & Vogel 2006, p. 661.
- ^ Zetterling 2000, p. 74.
- ^ Boog, Krebs & Vogel 2006, p. 616.
- ^ Giangreco, Moore & Polmar 2004, p. 252.
- ^ Shulman 2007, p. 166.
- ^ Copp 2000, pp. 399–400.
- ^ Zaloga 2015, p. 470.
- ^ Flint 2009, p. 305.
- ^ Flint 2009, p. 350.
- ^ a b Beevor 2009, p. 520.
- ^ a b c Flint 2009, p. 354.
- ^ a b Flint 2009, p. 352.
- ^ Flint 2009, p. 337.
- ^ Flint 2009, p. 292.
- ^ Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 345–354.
- ^ Traces of War.
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Further reading
- OCLC 660826327.
- ISBN 978-0-563-20193-9.
- ISBN 978-0-14-005293-0.
- Matloff, Maurice (1959). Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1944. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army.
- OCLC 637320842.
- ISBN 978-0-304-35837-3– via Internet Archive.
- OCLC 1175409.
- Whitlock, Flint (2004). The Fighting First: The Untold Story of The Big Red One on D-Day. Boulder: Westview. ISBN 978-0-8133-4218-4– via Internet Archive.
- Zaloga, Steven (2001). Operation Cobra 1944: Breakout from Normandy. Campaign #88. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-296-8.