Iranian architecture
Iranian architecture or Persian architecture (Persian: معمارى ایرانی, Me'māri e Irāni) is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. Persian buildings vary greatly in scale and function, from vernacular architecture to monumental complexes.[2] In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction.
According to American historian and archaeologist
General characteristics
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2023) |
Fundamental principles
Traditional Persian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although temporarily distracted by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable style.[4]
According to scholars Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven".[7][page needed] This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well.[clarification needed]
Materials
Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. Heavy clays, readily available at various places throughout the plateau, have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all building techniques, molded mud, compressed as solidly as possible, and allowed to dry. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never been completely abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar, also facilitated the development and use of brick.[8]
Design
Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout the
The columned
City planning
A circular city plan was a characteristic of several major Parthian and Sasanian cities, such as Hatra and Gor (Firuzabad). Another city design was based on a square geometry, found in the Eastern Iranian cities such as Bam and Zaranj.[10]
Categorization of styles
Overall, Mohammad Karim Pirnia categorizes the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages into the six following classes or styles ("sabk"):[11]
- Zoroastrian:
- The Parsian style (up until the third century BCE) including:
- Pre-Parsian style (up until the eighth century BCE) e.g. Chogha Zanbil,
- Median style (from the eighth to the sixth century BCE),
- mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings (such as the Tomb of Cyrus the Great),
- The Parthian style includes designs from the following eras:
- The Parsian style (up until the third century BCE) including:
- Islamic:
- The Khorasani style (from the late 7th until the end of the 10th century CE), e.g. Jameh Mosque of Nain and Jameh Mosque of Isfahan,
- The Razi style (from the 11th century to the Mongol invasion period) which includes the methods and devices of the following periods:
- Samanid period, e.g. Samanid Mausoleum,
- Ziyarid period, e.g. Gonbad-e Qabus,
- Seljukid period, e.g. Kharraqan towers,
- The Azari style (from the late 13th century to the appearance of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century), e.g. Jameh mosque of Yazd
- The Isfahani style spanning through the Naqsh-i Jahan Square.
Pre-Islamic architecture
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2023) |
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Hatra in Nineveh, Iraq. From the 3rd to 1st century BCE, although no archeological information on the city before the Parthian period but settlement in the area likely dates back to at least the Seleucid period.[12] Hatra was a religious and trading center. Today it is a World Heritage Site, protected by UNESCO.[13]
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Dej-e Shapour-Khast
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Sassanid Rayen Castle
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Pasargad
The pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. The post-
Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization.[14]
Each of the periods of
The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the standard: its city was laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and open column pavilions. Pasargadae along with Susa and Persepolis expressed the authority of 'The King of Kings', the staircases of the latter recording in relief sculpture the vast extent of the imperial frontier.
With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations fully flowered during the
For example, the roundness of the city of
The ruins of
(now a part of Russia) is one of the most extant and living examples of splendid Sassanid Iranian architecture. Since 2003, the Sassanid castle has been listed on Russia's UNESCO World Heritage list.Sub-periods
According to Mohammad Karim Pirnia, the ancient architecture of Iran can be divided into the following periods.
Pre-Parsian style
The pre-Parsian style (
-
Sialknecropolis. 3000–4000 BC
-
Chogha Zanbil ziggurat. 1250 BC
Parsian style
The "Persian style" (New Persian:شیوه معماری پارسی) is a style of architecture ("sabk") defined by Mohammad Karim Pirnia when categorizing the history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. Although the
-
Persepolis
-
Pasargad
-
Naqsh-e Rostam
Parthian style
This architectural style includes designs from the
Islamic architecture
Early Islamic period (7th–9th centuries)
The
After the overthrow of the Umayyads in 750 and their replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate, the caliphate's political center shifted further east to the new capital of Baghdad, in present-day Iraq. Partly as a result of this, Abbasid architecture was even more influenced by Sasanian architecture and by its roots in ancient Mesopotamia.[22][23] During the 8th and 9th centuries, the power and unity of the Abbasid Caliphate allowed architectural features and innovations from its heartlands to spread quickly to other areas of the Islamic world under its influence, including Iran.[24]
Features from the Umayyad period, such as vaulting, carved stucco, and painted wall decoration, were continued and elaborated in the Abbasid period.[23] The four-centred arch, a more sophisticated form of the pointed arch, is first attested during the 9th century in Abbasid monuments at Samarra in Iraq, such as the Qasr al-Ashiq palace.[25][23] It became widely used in later Iranian architecture.[26] Samarra also saw the appearance of new decorative styles, which rendered the earlier vegetal motifs of Sasanian and Byzantine traditions into more abstract and stylized forms, as exemplified by the so-called "beveled" style. This style subsequently spread to other regions, including Iran.[27]
Few of the major mosques built during this early Islamic period in Iran have survived in something close to their original form. Remains of a mosque at
The only major mosque from this early period to preserve some of its original form is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Damghan. Though the chronology of its construction is not well-documented, its overall form and style may date to the 9th century,[28] or possibly earlier, given its close similarities with Sassanid architecture.[23][31] It has a courtyard surrounded by a portico and a hypostyle prayer hall where the central aisle leading to the mihrab (a niche in the wall symbolizing the qibla) is slightly wider than the other aisles. It originally had no minaret, but a tall cylindrical tower was added to it in 1026.[28] This minaret is now the oldest one still standing in Iran.[32]
In secular architecture, the remains of various palaces and residences from this period have also been studied, such as those around
Emergence of regional style (10th–11th centuries)
After its initial apogee of power, the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented into regional states in the 9th and 10th centuries that were formally obedient to the caliphs in Baghdad but were de facto independent.
It is around this period that many of the distinctive features of subsequent Iranian and
Another important architectural trend to arise in the 10th to 11th centuries is the development of
Seljuk era (11th–13th centuries)
Turkic peoples began moving west across Central Asia and towards the Middle East from the 8th century onward, eventually converting to Islam and becoming major forces in the region. The most significant of these were the Seljuk Turks, who formed the Great Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, conquering all of Iran and other extensive territories in Central Asia and the Middle East.[39]
While the apogee of the Great Seljuks was short-lived, it represents a major benchmark in the history of Islamic art and architecture in Iran and Central Asia, inaugurating an expansion of patronage and of artistic forms.[41][42] Much of the Seljuk architectural heritage was destroyed during the Mongol invasions in the 13th century.[43] Nonetheless, compared to pre-Seljuk Iran, a larger volume of surviving monuments and artifacts from the Seljuk period has allowed scholars to study the arts of this era in greater depth.[41][42] Several neighbouring dynasties and empires contemporary with the Seljuks, including the Qarakhanids, the Ghaznavids, and the Ghurids, built monuments in a very similar style. A general tradition of architecture was thus shared across most of the eastern Islamic world (Iran, Central Asia, and parts of the northern Indian subcontinent) throughout the Seljuk period and its decline, from the 11th to 13th centuries.[41][42] This period is also regarded as a "classical" age of Central Asian architecture.[44]
The most important religious monument from the Great Seljuk period is the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, which was expanded and modified by various Seljuk patrons in the late 11th century and early 12th century. Two major and innovative domed chambers were added to it in the late 11th century. Four large iwans were then erected around the courtyard around the early 12th century, giving rise to the
Large caravanserais were built as a way to foster trade and assert Seljuk authority in the countryside. They typically consisted of a building with a fortified exterior appearance, monumental entrance portal, and interior courtyard surrounded by various halls, including iwans. Some notable examples, only partly preserved, are the caravanserais of Ribat-i Malik (c. 1068–1080) and Ribat-i Sharaf (12th century) in Transoxiana and Khorasan, respectively.[47][35][48]
The Seljuks also continued to build "tower tombs", an Iranian building type from earlier periods, such as the Toghrul Tower built in Rayy (south of present-day Tehran) in 1139. More innovative, however, was the introduction of mausoleums with a square or polygonal floor plan, which later became a common form of monumental tombs. Early examples of this are the two Kharraqan Mausoleums (1068 and 1093) near Qazvin (northern Iran), which have octagonal forms, and the large Mausoleum of Sanjar (c. 1152) in Merv (present-day Turkmenistan), which has a square base.[49]
Around the same time, between the late 10th century and the early 13th century, the Turkic Qarakhanids ruled in Transoxiana and executed many impressive constructions in Bukhara and
Further east, the first major Turkic dynasty was the Ghaznavids, who became independent in the late 10th century and ruled from Ghazna, in present-day Afghanistan. In the second half of the 12th century, the Ghurids replaced them as the major power in the region from northern India to the edge of the Caspian Sea.[50][51] Among the most remarkable monuments of these two dynasties are a number of ornate brick towers and minarets which have survived as stand-alone structures. Their exact functions are unclear. They include the Tower of Mas'ud III near Ghazna (early 12th century) and the Minaret of Jam built by the Ghurids (late 12th century), also in present-day Afghanistan.[52][53]
As the Great Seljuks declined in the 12th century, various other dynasties (often also of Turkic origin) formed smaller states and empires. In Iran and Central Asia, the Khwarazm-Shahs, formerly vassals of the Seljuks and Qara Khitai, took advantage of this to expand their power and form the Khwarazmian Empire, occupying much of the region and conquering the Ghurids in the early 13th century, only to fall soon after to the Mongol invasions.[51] The site of the former Khwarazmian capital, Kunya-Urgench (in present-day Turkmenistan), has preserved several monuments from the Khwarazmian Empire period (late 12th and early 13th century), including the so-called Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi (possibly the tomb of Il-Arslan) and the Mausoleum of Sultan Tekesh.[54][55]
Ilkhanids (13th–14th centuries)
From the 13th century to the early 16th century, Iran and Central Asia came under the control of two major dynasties descended from the Mongol conqueror
Ilkhanid architecture elaborated earlier Iranian traditions. In particular, greater attention was given to interior spaces and how to organize them. Rooms were made taller, while transverse vaulting was employed and walls were opened with arches, thus allowing more light and air inside.[56] Muqarnas, which was previously confined to covering limited transitional elements like squinches, was now used to cover entire domes and vaults for purely decorative effect. The Tomb of 'Abd al-Samad in Natanz (1307–8), for example, is covered inside by an elaborate muqarnas dome that is made from stucco suspended below the pyramidal vault that roofs the building.[56]
Brick remained the main construction material, but more color was added through the use of tile mosaic, which involved cutting monochrome tiles of different colors into pieces that were then fitted together to form larger patterns, especially geometric motifs and floral motifs.[56] Carved stucco decoration also continued. Some exceptional examples in Iran come from this period, including a wall of carved stucco in the Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran in Linjan (near Isfahan),[30] and a mihrab added in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. The latter is one of the masterpieces of Islamic sculptural art from this era, featuring multiple layers of deeply-carved vegetal motifs, along with a carved inscription.[57]
Various mosques were built or expanded during this period, usually following the four-iwan plan for congregational mosques (e.g. at
The most impressive monument to survive from this period is the
Timurids (14th–15th centuries)
The Timurid Empire, created by Timur (r. 1370–1405), oversaw another cultural renaissance. Timurid architecture continued the tradition of Ilkhanid architecture, building monuments once again on a grand scale and with lavish decoration made to impress, but they also refined previous designs and techniques.[58] Timurid rulers recruited the best craftsmen from their conquered territories or even forced them to move to the Timurid capital.[60]
Brick continued to be used as construction material. To cover large brick surfaces with colorful decoration, the banna'i technique was used to create geometric patterns and Kufic inscriptions at relatively low cost, while more expensive tile mosaic continued to be used for floral patterns.[56] Tiles were preferred on the outside, while interior walls could be covered with carved or painted plaster instead.[56]
Among the most important Timurid innovations was the more sophisticated and fluid arrangement of geometric vaulting.[58][56] Large vaults were divided by intersecting ribs into smaller vaults which could then be further subdivided or filled with muqarnas and other types of decoration. Muqarnas itself also became even more complex by using smaller individual cells to create the larger three-dimensional geometric plan. Visual balance could be achieved by alternating one type or pattern of decoration with another between the different subdivisions of the vault. By combining these vaulting techniques with a cruciform plan and by breaking the solid mass of supporting walls with open arches and windows, a strict division between dome, squinch, and wall was dissolved and an endless diversity of elaborate interior spaces could be created.[56]
The most significant preserved Timurid monuments are found in and around the cities of Khorasan and Transoxiana, including Samarkand, Bukhara,
Timur's successors built on a somewhat smaller scale, but under the patronage of Gawhar Shad, the wife of his son Shah Rukh (r. 1405–1447), Timurid architecture attained the height of sophistication during the first half of the 15th century.[56] Her monuments were mainly found in Mashhad and Herat,[56] though some have been destroyed or severely damaged since the 19th century, including her mausoleum and mosque complex (1417–1438). Some of the surviving vaulting and decoration inside her mausoleum is nonetheless indicative of its original quality.[62]
Under Ulugh Beg (r. 1447–1449), the Registan Square in Samarkand was first transformed into a monumental complex similar to what it is today. He built three structures around the square, of which only the Ulugh Beg Madrasa (1417–1420) survives today (two other monumental structures were erected around the square at later periods), with a large façade covered by a rich variety of decoration.[61]
Timurid patronage was of high importance in the history of art and architecture across a wide part of the Islamic world. The international Timurid style was eventually integrated into the visual culture of the rising
During the late 14th and 15th centuries, western Iran was dominated by two powerful Turkoman confederations, the Qara Qoyunlu and the Aq Qoyunlu. While few monuments sponsored by either faction have been preserved, what does remain shows that the Timurid style was already spreading westward during this period.[63] One of the most significant Qara Qoyunlu monuments is the Blue Mosque or Muzaffariya Mosque (1465) in Tabriz, now partly ruined. It has an unusual T-shaped layout around a central dome, not unlike the Ottoman Green Mosque in Bursa, and is decorated with a revetment of very high-quality tilework in six colours, including a deep blue.[65]
Safavids and Uzbeks (16th–18th centuries)
The
Relatively few Safavid monuments have been preserved from before the period prior to the reign of
Contemporary with the Safavids in Iran were other dynasties and ruling groups in Central Asia, such as the Shaybanids and other Uzbek tribal leaders. Monumental buildings continued to be built here, drawing on the traditional Timurid style.[66] In Bukhara, the Shaybanids created the present Po-i-Kalyan complex, integrating the Qarakhanid-era Kalan Minaret, renovating the old mosque in 1514, and adding the large Mir-i 'Arab Madrasa (1535–6).[68] Later, in Samarkand, the local ruler Yalangtush Bi Alchin gave the Registan its current appearance by building two new madrasas across from Ulugh Beg's madrasa. The Sher-Dor Madrasa (1616–1636) imitates the form of the Ulugh Beg Madrasa, while the Tilla Kar Madrasa (1646–1660) is both a mosque and a madrasa.[61] Architectural activity became less significant in the region after the 17th century, with the exception of Khiva. The Friday mosque of Khiva, with its distinctive hypostyle hall of wooden columns, was rebuilt in this form in 1788–9.[66]
Safavid Isfahan
Abbas I made Isfahan his capital and embarked on the most ambitious program of construction of the Safavid period. As a result, a very large proportion of preserved Safavid monuments are concentrated in this one city. Abbas I moved the political and economic center of the city from its traditional location near the old Jameh Mosque to a new area near the
The two mosques on the square are each entered via monumental portals, but due to the difference between the direction of the qibla and the orientation of the square, both mosques are built at an angle from it and their vestibules bend on the way in. Both have prayer halls covered by a single large, double-shelled dome, though the Shah Mosque's prayer hall is also flanked by two hypostyle halls.[30] Unlike in Timurid monuments, the dome interiors are not geometrically subdivided and have a uniform surface instead.[58] An effect of lightness is achieved instead by the transitional zone of arches, squinches, and windows, with the walls of the prayer hall in the Shah Mosque also pierced by open archways. On the outside, the domes have an "onion" shape (i.e. bulging on the sides and pointed on top).[30] While the Shah Mosque has minarets and a traditional central courtyard surrounded by four iwans, the Lutfallah Mosque has no minarets and is different from all other Safavid mosques by consisting only of the single domed chamber.[30] The interiors of both mosques are entirely covered in glazed tiles, predominantly blue, which were restored in the 1930s on the basis of the few remaining original tiles.[30]
To the west of the Maidan-i Shah square was a large palace complex of gardens and pavilions. The most important surviving pavilion,
These bridges connect the city centre with the south bank of the Zayandeh River, where royal Safavid hunting grounds were once located. After 1604, a Christian Armenian quarter, New Julfa, was also created here. Some 30 or so churches were built in the area, of which 13 survive today, dating to the 17th and early 18th centuries.[30] The churches imported Armenian features and combined them with the contemporary Safavid style,[30] as exemplified by the Vank Cathedral (or Holy Saviour Cathedral), dating in its current form to around 1656.[70]
Zands and Qajars (18th–early 20th centuries)
As the Safavids declined in the 18th century, the Zand dynasty made Shiraz its capital. Muhammad Karim Khan Zand, the dynasty's founder, created a grand square and built a new set of monuments, in a way similar to the Safavid construction projects in Isfahan, though on a smaller scale.[66] Among the surviving monuments of this project is the Vakil Mosque, begun in 1766 and restored in 1827, as well as a bazaar and a hammam (bathhouse).[66]
In northern Iran, the Qajars made their capital at Tehran. They continued to build mosques throughout the country with a traditional courtyard layout with four iwans, but with certain variations and the introduction of new features like clocktowers. The Qajars also expanded major shrines like the Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom.[66] In Shiraz (which came under Qajar rule in 1794), the Mosque of Nasir al-Mulk (1876–1888) has a traditional layout but exemplifies a new style of decorative tiles, painted in overglaze with images of flower bouquets in predominantly blue, pink, yellow, violet and green colors, sometimes on a white background. This type of tile decoration can also be seen at the Sepahsalar Mosque in Tehran (1881–1890).[66]
Of the Qajar palaces built in and around Tehran, the most famous is the Golestan Palace, which was both the administrative center and the shah's winter residence. Used by successive Qajar rulers, the palace underwent many modifications that illustrate the progressive changes over this period.[66] Traditional forms were still prevalent under Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834), who commissioned the Marble Throne and installed it in a traditional audience hall fronted by columns.[66][71] The 19th century also saw the rise of revivalist trends. Qajar monarchs, including Fath Ali Shah, commissioned works that deliberately referenced Safavid and ancient Sasanian architecture, hoping to appropriate their symbolism of kingship and empire.[72]
Under Naser al-Din Shah (r. 1848–1896), new elements and styles of European inspiration began to be introduced, such as tall windows, pilasters, and formal staircases. At the Golestan Palace, he added the Shams ol-Emareh, a tall multi-leveled structure with two towers.[66][71] He also remodelled Tehran, demolishing the dense urban fabric in parts of the old city, as well as its historic walls, and replacing them with boulevards and open squares inspired by what he saw in his visits to Europe.[73][71]
At the beginning of the 20th century, during the last decades of Qajar rule and the early years of Pahlavi rule, revivalist trends continued to be popular and were employed in the design of both public and private buildings, including those commissioned by the rising bourgeoisie. This resulted in many examples of buildings across the country with an eclectic blend of stylistic features from both the Islamic and ancient Zoroastrian eras.[72]
Persian domes
The
The
The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the
The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the
This very distinct style of architecture was inherited from the
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Dome ofGur-i Emir Mausoleumin Samakand (early 14th century)
-
Example of a common shape of Persian dome at the Shah Mosque in Isfahan (early 17th century)
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Modern dome architecture in the proposed mosque of Isfahan international convention center
Contemporary Iranian architecture
Contemporary architecture in Iran begins with the advent of the first Pahlavi period in the early 1920s. Some designers, such as
-
Iran Senate House Traditional Persian mythology such as the chains of justice of Nowshiravan and essences of Iranian architecture have been incorporated by Heydar Ghiai to create a new modern Iranian architecture.
-
Badgirs, and yet has a spiraling interior reminiscent of Frank Lloyd Wright's Guggenheim.
-
Tehran University College of Social Sciences shows obvious traces of architecture from Persepolis.
Iranian architects
The first professional association of Iranian architects, the Society of Iranian Diplomate Architects, was founded on 30 January 1945. Its founders were Iranian architects, including Vartan Avanessian, Mohsen Foroughi, and Keyghobad Zafar. Foreign architects had been very prominent in Iran during the early 20th century, and one of the new association's activities was the publication of a magazine, Architecte, which promoted Iranian architects.[88] In 1966, a new professional association was founded, the Association of Iranian Architects. Its founders included Vartan Avanessian, Abass Azhdari, Naser Badi, Abdelhamid Eshraq, Manuchehr Khorsandi, Iraj Moshiri, Ali Sadeq, and Keyghobad Zafar.[88]
Several Iranian architects have managed to win the prestigious A' Design Award 2018 in an unprecedented number of sections.[89] A number of Iranian architects have also won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, including:
- Bagh-e-Ferdowsi, Tehran. 1999–2001[90]
- New Life for Old Structures, Various locations. 1999–2001[90]
- Shushtar New Town, Shushtar. 1984–1986[91]
UNESCO designated World Heritage Sites
The following is a list of World Heritage Sites designed or constructed by Iranians, or designed and constructed in the style of Iranian architecture:
- Inside Iran:
- Arg-é Bam Cultural Landscape, Kerman
- Naghsh-i Jahan Square, Isfahan
- Mazandaran
- Fars
- Persepolis, Fars
- Khuzestan
- West Azerbaijan
- Dome of Soltaniyeh, Zanjan
- Behistun Inscription, Kermanshah province
- Outside Iran:
- Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar, Turkmenistan[94][95]
- Ruins of Konye-Urgench, Turkmenistan[96][97]
- Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi, Kazakhstan
- Historic Centre of Baku, Azerbaijan
- Historic Centre of Ganja, Azerbaijan
- Historic Centre of Bukhara, Uzbekistan
- Historic Centre of Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan
- Itchan Kala of Khiva, Uzbekistan
- Samarkand, Uzbekistan
- Daghestan, Russia
- Baha'i Gardens, Haifa, Israel
- Bibi-Heybat Mosque, Azerbaijan
- Tuba Shahi Mosque, Azerbaijan
- Palace of Shaki Khans, Shaki, Azerbaijan
See also
- Yakhchāl
- Ab anbar
- Windcatcher
- Great Wall of Gorgan
- Band-e Kaisar
- Construction industry of Iran
- Architecture of Azerbaijan
- Mughal architecture
- ArchNet, MIT/UT Austin's archive of Iranian architectural documents
References
Citations
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- Arthur Pope, Introducing Persian Architecture. Oxford University Press. London. 1971.
- ^ a b Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.266
- ^ Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.266
- ^ a b Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.10
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- ^ Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.9
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- ^ "Hatra | Iraq, History, & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ "Hatra". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
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- ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture
- ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Stucco and plasterwork
- ^ a b c d Hattstein & Delius 2011, p. 110.
- ^ Bloom 2013, pp. 72–73.
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- ^ a b Hattstein & Delius 2011, p. 354-359.
- ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 140-144.
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- ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 146.
- ^ Hattstein & Delius 2011, p. 330-332.
- ^ a b Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 134.
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- ^ Hattstein & Delius 2011, p. 360-366.
- ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Kunya-Urgench
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture (VI. c. 1250–c. 1500)
- ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 10–11.
- ^ ISBN 9789004161658.
- ^ a b Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 8–10.
- ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 37.
- ^ a b c Bloom & Blair 2009, Samarkand
- ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Herat
- ^ a b Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 50.
- ISSN 1873-9830.
- ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 50–52.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture (VII. c. 1500–c. 1900)
- ^ Hattstein & Delius 2011, pp. 507–509.
- ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 199–201.
- ^ Hattstein & Delius 2011, pp. 517–518.
- ^ Hattstein & Delius 2011, p. 518.
- ^ a b c Bloom & Blair 2009, Qajar
- ^ ISBN 9781119068662.
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- ^ Kuehn, S. 2007. "Tilework on 12th to 14th century funerary monuments in Urgench (Gurganj)", in Arts of Asia, Volume 37, Number 2, pages 112-129
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Sources
- Blair, Sheila; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0.
- Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
- Bloom, Jonathan M. (2013). The minaret. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. OCLC 856037134.
- Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300218701.
- Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4. Retrieved 2013-03-17.
- Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru, eds. (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9781119068662.
- Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter, eds. (2011). Islam: Art and Architecture. h.f.ullmann. ISBN 9783848003808.
- Hillenbrand, Robert (1994). Islamic Architecture: Form, Function, and Meaning (Casebound ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. OCLC 30319450.
- Hillenbrand, Robert (1999b). Islamic art and architecture. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-20305-7.
- Petersen, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-20387-3.
Further reading
Part of a series on the |
Culture of Iran |
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Iran portal |
- Carboni, S.; Masuya, T. (1993). Persian tiles. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- Abdullahi Y.; Embi M. R. B (2015). Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On Islamic Architecture. International Journal of Architectural Research: Archnet-IJAR. Archived from the original on 2019-01-21. Retrieved 2015-09-02.
- Yahya Abdullahi; Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi (2013). "Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns". Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2 (2). Frontiers of Architectural Research: Elsevier: 243–251. .
- Encyclopedia Iranica on ancient Iranian architecture
- Encyclopedia Iranica on Stucco decorations in Iranian architecture