Persian art
Persian art or Iranian art (Persian: هنر ایرانی, romanized: Honar-è Irâni) has one of the richest art heritages in world history and has been strong in many media including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and sculpture. At different times, influences from the art of neighbouring civilizations have been very important, and latterly Persian art gave and received major influences as part of the wider styles of Islamic art. This article covers the art of Persia up to 1925, and the end of the Qajar dynasty; for later art see Iranian modern and contemporary art, and for traditional crafts see arts of Iran. Rock art in Iran is its most ancient surviving art. Iranian architecture is covered at that article.
From the Achaemenid Empire of 550 BC–330 BC for most of the time a large Iranian-speaking state has ruled over areas similar to the modern boundaries of Iran, and often much wider areas, sometimes called Greater Iran, where a process of cultural Persianization left enduring results even when rulership separated. The courts of successive dynasties have generally led the style of Persian art, and court-sponsored art has left many of the most impressive survivals.
In ancient times the surviving monuments of Persian art are notable for a tradition concentrating on the human figure (mostly male, and often royal) and animals. Persian art continued to place larger emphasis on figures than Islamic art from other areas, though for religious reasons now generally avoiding large examples, especially in sculpture. The general Islamic style of dense decoration, geometrically laid out, developed in Persia into a supremely elegant and harmonious style combining motifs derived from plants with Chinese motifs such as the cloud-band, and often animals that are represented at a much smaller scale than the plant elements surrounding them. Under the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century this style was used across a wide variety of media, and diffused from the court artists of the shah, most being mainly painters.
Early arts
Evidence of a painted-pottery civilization around Susa has been dated to c 5000 BCE.[1] Susa was firmly within the Sumerian Uruk cultural sphere during the Uruk period. An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, proto-writing, cylinder seals with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture, is found at Susa. Susa may have been a colony of Uruk. As such, the periodization of Susa corresponds to Uruk; Early, Middle and Late Susa II periods (3800–3100 BCE) correspond to Early, Middle, and Late Uruk periods.
Shortly after Susa was first settled 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a temple on a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape. The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform. Nearly two thousand pots were recovered from the cemetery most of them now in the Louvre. The vessels found are eloquent testimony to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.[2] Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian Ubaid ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium B.C.[2]
Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are course cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children.[3] The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand.
Lullubi rock reliefs
The rock reliefs of the mountain kingdom of
Elam
Elamite art, from the south and west of modern Iran shared many characteristics with the neighbouring art of Mesopotamia, though it was often less sophisticated. Cylinder seals, small figures of worshippers, gods and animals, shallow reliefs, and some large statues of rulers are all found. There are a small number of very fine gold vessels with relief figures.[7]
Luristan bronzes
Luristan bronzes (rarely "Lorestān", "Lorestāni" etc. in sources in English) are small
The bronzes tend to be flat and use
The
Achaemenids
Achaemenid art includes frieze reliefs, metalwork, decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Most survivals of court art are monumental sculpture, above all the reliefs, double animal-headed Persian column capitals and other sculptures of Persepolis (see below for the few but impressive Achaemenid rock reliefs).[17]
Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all corners of their empire, they produced not simply a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style.[18] Cyrus the Great in fact had an extensive ancient Iranian heritage behind him; the rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the Medes, was for instance in the tradition of earlier sites.
The rhyton drinking vessel, horn-shaped and usually ending in an animal shape, is the most common type of large metalwork to survive, as in a fine example in New York. There are a number of very fine smaller pieces of jewellery or inlay in precious metal, also mostly featuring animals, and the Oxus Treasure has a wide selection of types. Small pieces, typically in gold, were sewn to clothing by the elite, and a number of gold torcs have survived.[17]
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Achaemenid griffin capital at Persepolis
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One of a pair of armlets from the Oxus Treasure, which has lost its inlays of precious stones or enamel
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Similar armlets in the "Apadana" reliefs atamphorae with griffin handles are given as tribute
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Bas-relief in Persepolis—a symbol in Zoroastrian for Nowruz— eternally fighting bull (personifying the moon), and a lion (personifying the Sun) representing the Spring
Rock reliefs
The large carved
Behistun is unusual in having a large and important inscription, which like the Egyptian
Only one has inscriptions and the matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits. The third from the left, identified by an inscription, is the tomb of
Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of
The seven Sassanian reliefs, whose approximate dates range from 225 to 310 AD, show subjects including investiture scenes and battles. The earliest relief at the site is
Sassanian reliefs are concentrated in the first 80 years of the dynasty, though one important set are 6th-century, and at relatively few sites, mostly in the Sasanian heartland. The later ones in particular suggest that they draw on a now-lost tradition of similar reliefs in palaces in stucco. The rock reliefs were probably coated in plaster and painted.[21]
The rock reliefs of the preceding Persian
The standard catalogue of pre-Islamic Persian reliefs lists the known examples (as at 1984) as follows: Lullubi #1–4; Elam #5–19; Assyrian #20–21; Achaemenid #22–30; Late/Post-Achaemenid and Seleucid #31–35; Parthian #36–49; Sasanian #50–84; others #85–88.[30]
Parthians
The art of the Parthians was a mix of Iranian and
The excavations at
The most characteristic feature of the "Parthian" art is frontality which is not a special feature of Iranic or Parthian art and first appeared in the art of Palmyra.[35] There are doubts whether this art can be called a "Parthian" art or that it should be associated with any particular regional area; there is no evidence that this art was created outside the middle-Euphrates region then brought to Palmyra for example.[36] This art is better thought of as a local development common to the middle Euphrates region.[36] Parthian rock reliefs are covered above.
In architecture, patterns in plaster were very popular, almost all now lost. Once the technique was developed these covered large surfaces and perhaps shared elements of their design with carpets and other textiles, also now almost entirely lost.[37] Parthian rhyta continued the Achaemenid style, but in the best the animals at the terminal (or protome) are more naturalistic, probably under Greek influence.
Sasanians
The surviving art of the Sasanians is best seen in its architecture, reliefs and metalwork, and there are some surviving paintings from what was evidently a widespread production. Stone reliefs were probably greatly outnumbered by interior ones in plaster, of which only fragments have survived. Free standing sculptures faded out of popularity in this time as compared to the period under the Parthians, but the
Surviving Sasanian art depicts courtly and chivalric scenes, with considerable grandeur of style, reflecting the lavish life and display of the Sasanian court as recorded by
One of the few sites where wall-paintings survived in quantity is Panjakent in modern Tajikistan, and ancient Sogdia, which was barely, if at all, under the control of the central Sasanian power. The old city was abandoned in the decades after the Muslims eventually took the city in 722 and has been extensively excavated in modern times. Large areas of wall paintings survived from the palace and private houses, which are mostly now in the Hermitage Museum or Tashkent. They covered whole rooms and were accompanied by large quantities of reliefs in wood. The subjects are similar to other Sasanian art, with enthroned kings, feasts, battles, and beautiful women, and there are illustrations of both Persian and Indian epics, as well as a complex mixture of deities. They mostly date from the 7th and 8th centuries.[41] At Bishapur floor mosaics in a broadly Greco-Roman style have survived, and these were probably widespread in other elite settings, perhaps made by craftsmen from the Greek world.[42]
A number of Sasanid silver vessels have survived, especially rather large plates or bowls used to serve food. These have high-quality engraved or embossed decoration from a courtly repertoire of mounted kings or heroes, and scenes of hunting, combat and feasting, often partially gilded. Ewers, presumably for wine, may feature dancing girls in relief. These were exported to China, and also westwards.[43]
Sasanian glass continued and developed Roman glass technology. In simpler forms it seems to have been available to a wide range of the population, and was a popular luxury export to Byzantium and China, even appearing in elite burials from the period in Japan. Technically, it is a silica-soda-lime glass production characterized by thick glass-blown vessels relatively sober in decoration, avoiding plain colours in favour of transparency and with vessels worked in one piece without over-elaborate amendments. Thus the decoration usually consists of solid and visual motifs from the mould (reliefs), with ribbed and deeply cut facets, although other techniques like trailing and applied motifs were practised.[39] Sasanian pottery does not seem to have been used by the elites, and is mostly utilitarian.
Carpets evidently could reach a high level of sophistication, as the praise lavished on the lost royal Baharestan Carpet by the Muslim conquerors shows. But the only surviving fragments that might originate from Sasanid Persia are humbler productions, probably made by nomad tribes. Sasanid textiles were famous, and fragments have survived, mostly with designs based on animals in compartments, in a long-lasting style.[39]
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Sections of wall-paintings from Panjakent, c. 740
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The so-called "Coupe de Chosroès", metal and carved semi-precious stone
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Silver-gilt head of a king, 4th century
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Vases with dancing beauties, c. 300–500
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Rhyton with female head and water buffalo, c. 600–700, silver
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Silver partly gilded dish with the favourite subject of the king hunting, 7th century
Sogdians
Sogdian art refers to the art, architecture, and art-forms produced by the Sogdians, an Iranian people who lived mostly in Sogdia in Central Asia, but also had a large diaspora spread throughout Asia, especially in China, where their art was much appreciated, and influenced the Chinese. This influence on the Chinese ranged from metallurgy to music. Today, the Sogdians are best known for their paintings, but they had a distinctive sculpture and architecture as well.
The Sogdians were especially talented in metalworking, and their work in this field inspired the Chinese, who were among their patrons together with the Turks. The Sogdian metalwork may be confused with Sasanian metalwork, and the two are still confused by some scholars today. However, they differentiate in technique and shape, as well as iconography. Thanks to the work of archaeologist Boris Marshak, several characteristic of Sogdian metalwork have been established: with respect to Sasanian vessels, Sogdian productions are less massive, their shape differs from the Sasanian, as do the techniques employed in their production. Further, the designs of Sogdian productions are more dynamic.[44][45]
The Sogdians lived in architecturally complex abodes that resembled their temples. These places were decorated with remarkable paintings, an art in which the Sogdians excelled. Indeed, they preferred to produce paintings and wood carvings to decorate their own houses. Sogdian wall paintings are bright, vigorous, and of remarkable beauty, but also tell about Sogdian life. They reproduce, for example, the costumes of the day, the gaming equipment, and the harness. They also depict stories and epics drawing on Iranian, Near Eastern (Manichaean, Nestorian) and Indian themes. Sogdian religious art reflects the religious affiliations of the Sogdians, and this knowledge is derived mostly from paintings and ossuaries.[46] Through these artifacts, it is possible to "experience the vibrancy of Sogdian life and imagination."[46]
Because Sogdian artists, and patrons, were much attentive to social life, displaying it in their works, banqueting, hunting, and entertainment are recurrent in their representations. The Sogdians were storytellers: they loved to recount stories. Thus, their paintings are narrative in nature.[47]
The Sogdians sought to portray both the supernatural and natural worlds. This desire "extended into portraying their own world." However, they did not "represent their mercantile activities, a major source of their wealth, but instead chose to show their enjoyment of it, such as the scenes of banqueting at Panjikent. In these paintings we see how the Sogdians saw themselves."[47]
Many Sogdian paintings were destroyed during the several invasions they suffered in their land. Of the works which survived, some of the best known are the Afrasiab murals and the Penjikent murals.
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Detail from Penjikent murals, 5th–8th century
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Sogdian banquet, Penjikent murals, 5th–8th century
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Detail of the Penjikent murals
Early Islamic period
Before the Mongol conquest
Persia managed to retain its cultural identity after the
Geometric Islamic architectural decoration in stucco, tiling, brick and carved wood and stone became elaborate and refined, and along with textiles worn by the rich was probably the main type of art that could be seen by the whole population, with other types essentially restricted to the private spheres of the rich.[51] Carpets are recorded in several accounts of life at the time, but none remain; they were perhaps mainly a rural folk art at this period. Very highly decorated metalwork in copper alloys (brass or bronze) was produced, apparently for a sophisticated urban market. Gold and silver equivalents apparently existed but have been mostly recycled for their precious materials; the few survivals were mostly traded north for furs and then buried as grave goods in Siberia. Sasanid iconography of mounted heroes, hunting scenes, and seated rulers with attendants remained popular in pottery and metalwork, now often surrounded by elaborate geometrical and calligraphic decoration.[52] The rich silk textiles that were an important export from Persia also continued to use the animal, and sometimes human, figures of their Sasanid predecessors.[53]
The
The
.Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals.[57] Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.[58]
Innovations in ceramics from this period include the production of
The Persians gradually adopted Arabic scripts after the conquest, and Persian calligraphy became an important artistic medium, often used as part of the decoration of other works in most media.[62]
Ilkhanids
During the 13th century, the Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided among his sons, forming many dynasties: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia, the latter two converting to Islam within a few decades.[63]
A rich civilization developed under these "little khans," who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of "iranisation" took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the "Iranian plan" mosques, was resumed. The art of the Persian book was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the
Timurids
During the reign of the
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Luster-ware bowl from Susa, 9th century
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Perfume-burner, 11th century, Khorasanor Central Asia
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Bowl with a hunting scene from the tale of the 5th-century kingBahram Gur and Azadeh, mina'i ware.
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Jug, 15th century, gilt-bronze with silver inlay, probably styled for the European market
Carpets
Carpet weaving is an essential part of
Persian carpets and rugs of various types were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes, in village and town workshops, and by royal court manufactories alike. As such, they represent different, simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran and its various peoples. The carpets woven in the Safavid court manufactories of Isfahan during the sixteenth century are famous for their elaborate colours and artistical design, and are treasured in museums and private collections all over the world today. Their patterns and designs have set an artistic tradition for court manufactories which was kept alive during the entire duration of the Persian Empire up to the last royal dynasty of Iran. Exceptional individual Safavid carpets include the Ardabil Carpet (now in London and Los Angeles) and the Coronation Carpet (now in Copenhagen). Much earlier, the Baharestan Carpet is a lost Sasanian carpet for the royal palace at Ctesiphon, and the oldest significant carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was possibly made in Persia.[68]
Carpets woven in towns and regional centres like
The art and craft of carpet weaving has gone through periods of decline during times of political unrest, or under the influence of commercial demands. It particularly suffered from the introduction of synthetic dyes during the second half of the nineteenth century. Carpet weaving still plays a major part in the economy of modern Iran.[68] Modern production is characterized by the revival of traditional dyeing with natural dyes, the reintroduction of traditional tribal patterns, but also by the invention of modern and innovative designs, woven in the centuries-old technique. Hand-woven Persian carpets and rugs were regarded as objects of high artistic and utilitarian value and prestige from the first time they were mentioned by ancient Greek writers, until today.
Although the term "Persian carpet" most often refers to pile-woven textiles, flat-woven carpets and rugs like
In 2010, the "traditional skills of carpet weaving" in
Persian miniature
A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a
The tradition grew from book illustration, illustrating many narrative scenes, often with many figures. The representational conventions that developed are effective but different from Western
Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure, and in the miniature tradition the depiction of figures, often in large numbers, is central. This was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be more free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. The
As well as the figurative scenes in miniatures and borders, there was a parallel style of non-figurative ornamental decoration which was found in borders and panels in miniature pages, and spaces at the start or end of a work or section, and often in whole pages acting as frontispieces. In Islamic art this is referred to as "illumination", and manuscripts of the Qur'an and other religious books often included considerable number of illuminated pages.[76] The designs reflected contemporary work in other media, in later periods being especially close to book-covers and Persian carpets, and it is thought that many carpet designs were created by court artists and sent to the workshops in the provinces.[77]
Safavids
Safavid art is the art of the Persian Safavid dynasty from 1501 to 1722. It was a high point for the art of the book and architecture; and also including ceramics, metal, glass, and gardens. The arts of the Safavid period show a far more unitary development than in any other period of Persian art,[78] with the same style, diffused from the court, appearing in carpets, architectural tiles, ceramics, and manuscript illumination.[79]
When the Safavids seized the throne Persian art had become divided into two styles: in the east a continuation of Timurid styles, and in the west a
Chinese imitation drawings emerged in 15th century Persian art. Scholars have noted that extant works from the post-Mongol period contain an abundance of motifs common to Chinese art like dragons,
Arts of the book
Under the Safavids, the art of the book, especially
Muslim Spanish paper arriving early in Iran (13th century), was always used. There is frequent use of coloured papers. Towards 1540, a marbled paper also appeared, which however rapidly disappeared again. The bindings were mostly in tinted Morocco leather of very fine quality. They could be gilded and stamped with geometric, floral or figurative motifs, or embossed in blue. In the second half of the 16th century, they pierced the leather covers to allow the coloured paper or silk pages to be seen. In the same period, at Shiraz, appeared lacquered bindings, which remain however very rare and highly valued in Iran. The decoration of page margins was realised in various ways: sometimes they were inserted in a different paper, (a tradition that appeared in the 15th century); sprinkled with gold, following a Chinese custom; or painted with colours or gold. The style of illustrations varied greatly from one manuscript to another, according to the period and centre of production.[83]
Tahmasp I was for the early years of his reign a generous funder of the royal workshop, who were responsible for several of the most magnificent Persian manuscripts, but from the 1540s he was increasingly troubled by religious scruples, until in 1556 he finally issued an "Edict of Sincere Repentance" attempting to outlaw miniature painting, music and other arts.
From this dispersal of the royal workshop there was a shift in emphasis from large illustrated books for the court to the production of single sheets designed to be put into a muraqqa, or album. These allowed collectors with more modest budgets to acquire works by leading painters. By the end of the century complicated narrative scenes with many figures were less popular, replaced by sheets with single figures, often only partially painted and with a garden background drawn rather than painted. The master of this style was Reza Abbasi whose career largely coincided with the reign of Abbas I, his main employer. Although he painted figures of old men, his most common subjects were beautiful young men and (less often) women or pairs of lovers.[86]
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Rustam sleeps, while his horse Rakhsh fends off a tiger. Probably an early work by Sultan Mohammed, 1515–20
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Khusraw discovers Shirin bathing in a pool, a favourite scene, here from 1548. The silver used to paint the stream has oxidized to black.
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Youth kneeling and holding out a wine-cup, a typical miniature intended for an album byRiza Abbasi
Ceramics
The study and dating of ceramics under Shah Ismail and Shah Tahmasp is difficult because there are few pieces which are dated or which mention the place of production.
In general, the designs tend to imitate those of Chinese porcelain, with the production of blue and white pieces with Chinese form and motifs, with motifs such as chi clouds, and dragons.[79] The Persian blue is distinguished from the Chinese blue by its more numerous and subtle nuances. Often, quatrains by Persian poets, sometimes related to the destination of the piece (allusion to wine for a goblet, for example) occur in the scroll patterns. A completely different type of design, much more rare, carries iconography very specific to Islam (Islamic zodiac, bud scales, arabesques) and seems influenced by the Ottoman world, as is evidenced by feather-edged anthemions (honeysuckle ornaments) widely used in Turkey. New styles of figures appeared, influenced by the art of the book: young, elegant cupbearers, young women with curved silhouettes, or yet cypress trees entangling their branches, reminiscent of the paintings of Reza Abbasi.
Numerous types of pieces were produced: goblets, plates, long-necked bottles, spitoons, etc. A common shape is flasks with very small necks and bodies flattened on one side and very rounded on the other. Shapes borrowed from Islamic metalwork with decoration largely inspired by Chinese porcelain are characteristic.[89] With the closing of the Chinese market in 1659, Persian ceramic soared to new heights, to fulfill European needs. The appearance of false marks of Chinese workshops on the backs of some ceramics marked the taste that developed in Europe for far-eastern porcelain, satisfied in large part by Safavid production. This new destination led to wider use of Chinese and exotic iconography (elephants) and the introduction of new forms, sometimes astonishing (hookahs, octagonal plates, animal-shaped objects).
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Plate, 16th century, imitating Chinese Kraak ware
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Plate, Kubachi ware, 16th century
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Tile with young man. Earthenware, painted on slip and under transparent glaze. Northwestern Iran, Kubachi ware, 17th century
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Lustreware wine bottle, 2nd half 17th century
Metalwork
Metalwork saw a gradual decline during the Safavid dynasty, and remains difficult to study, particularly because of the small number of dated pieces. Under Shah Ismail, there is a perpetuation of the shapes and decorations of Timurid inlays: motifs of almond-shaped glories, of shamsa (suns) and of chi clouds are found on the inkwells in the form of mausoleums or the globular pitchers reminiscent of Ulugh Beg's jade one. Under Shah Tahmasp, inlays disappeared rapidly, as witnessed by a group of candlesticks in the form of pillars.[90]
Coloured paste (red, black, green) inlays begin to replace the previous inlays of silver and gold. Openwork panels in steel appear, for uses such as elements of doors, plaques with inscriptions, and the heads of 'alams, the standards carried in Shi'ite religious processions.[91] Important shrines were given doors and jali grilles in silver and even gold.[92]
Hardstone carvings
Persian hardstone carvings, once thought to mostly date to the 15th and 16th centuries, are now thought to stretch over a wider period. Jade was increasingly appreciated from the Ilkhanid period. As well as wine-cups,[93] there are a series of pitchers with globular bellies, mounted on a little ring-shaped base and having wide, short necks. Two of these (one in black jade inlaid with gold, the other in white jade) are inscribed with the name of Ismail I. The handle is in the shape of a dragon, which betrays a Chinese influence, but this type of pitcher comes in fact directly from the preceding period: its prototype is the pitcher of Ulugh Beg. We also know of blades and handles of knives in jade, often inlaid with gold wire and engraved. Hardstone serves also to make jewels to inlay in metal objects, such as the great zinc bottle inlaid with gold, rubies and turquoise dated to the reign of Ismail and conserved at the museum of Topkapi in Istanbul.
Qajars
Qajar art refers to the art, architecture, and art-forms of the
Qajar painting
Painting now adopted the European technique of
While the depiction of inanimate objects and still lifes is seen to be very realistic in Qajar painting, the depiction of human beings is decidedly idealised. This is especially evident in the portrayal of Qajar royalty, where the subjects of the paintings are very formulaically placed with standardised features. However, the impact of photography greatly increased the individuality of portraits in the later 19th century.[96]
Kamal-ol-molk (1845–1940) came from a family of court painters, but also trained with a painter who had studied in Europe. After a career at court, he visited Europe in 1898, at the age of 47, staying for some four years. He was one of the artists who introduced a more European style to Persian painting.[97]
Royal portraiture
Most famous of the Qajar artworks are the portraits that were made of the various Persian
There are portraits of Fath Ali Shah in a very wide assortment of settings, from the armour-clad warrior king to the flower-smelling gentleman, but all are similar in their depiction of the Shah, differing only slightly, usually due to the specific artist of the portrait. It is only appropriate that this particular Shah be so immortalized in this style, as it was under his rule as the second Qajar shah that the style truly flourished. One reason for this were the stronger and stronger diplomatic ties that the Qajar rulers were nurturing with European powers.[99]
See also
Notes
- ISBN 0-395-13592-3.
- ^ a b Aruz, Joan (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Abrams. p. 26.
- ^ Aruz, Joan (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Abrams. p. 29.
- ^ ISBN 9780521564960.
- ISBN 9781438453255. Archivedfrom the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2019-03-18.
- ISBN 9781860646751.
- ^ a b Porada
- ^ "Luristan" remains the usual spelling in art history for the bronzes, as for example in EI, Muscarella, Frankfort, and current museum practice
- ^ Muscarella, 112–113
- ^ Muscarella, 115–116; EI I
- ^ Muscarella, 116–117; EI I
- ^ EI, I
- ^ Frankfort, 343-48; Muscarella, 117 is less confident that they were not settled.
- ^ EI I
- ^ Frankfort, 344-45
- ^ Muscarella, 125–126
- ^ a b Cotterell, 161–162
- ISBN 978-90-6831-727-5.); Cotterell, 162
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Canepa, 53 and throughout. Canepa, 63–64, 76–78 on siting
- ^ Luschey; Canepa, 55–57
- ^ a b c d Herrmann and Curtis
- ^ Luschey
- ^ a b Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68
- ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 62, 65–68
- ^ "Vanden Berghe #27–29". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2015-11-30.
- ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 74–76
- ^ Herrmann and Curtis; Keall for the six at Bishapur
- ^ Canepa, 59–61, 68–73
- ^ Downey; Canepa, 59–60
- ^ Vanden Berghe, Louis, Reliefs rupestres de l' Iran ancien, 1983, Brussels, per online summary of his list here Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Rawson, 45
- ^ Downey
- ^ Downey; Cotterell, 173–175; Rawson, 47
- ^ Rostovtzeff: Dura and the Problem of Parthian Art; Downey
- ISBN 9789004047983.
- ^ ISBN 9780674778863. Archivedfrom the original on 2016-11-17. Retrieved 2017-09-08.
- ^ Cotterell, 175
- ^ Harper; Cotterell, 177–178;
- ^ a b c d e Harper
- ^ Keall
- ^ Marshak, Boris I, "Panjicant" Archived 2015-11-16 at the Wayback Machine, 2002, Encyclopædia Iranica; Canby (1993), 9; Harper; many photos at warfare.ml Archived 2018-03-11 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Keall for Bishapur; see Harper for other sites
- ^ Harper; Cotterell, 189–190
- ^ Lerner, Judith A. "Sogdian Metalworking". Freer, Sackler - Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 11 September 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
- ^ "Sogdian art". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 10 September 2012 [20 July 1998]. Archived from the original on 20 July 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ a b Lerner, Judith A. "Orlat Plaques". Freer, Sackler - Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 11 September 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
- ^ a b Bellemare, Julie; Lerner, Judith A. "The Sogdians at Home - Art and Material Culture". Freer, Sackler - Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 11 September 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
- ^ Ettinghausen et al, 105, 133–135; Soucek
- ^ Nishapur: Pottery of the Early Islamic Period, Wilkinson, Charles K. (1973)
- ^ "Nishapur pottery". Archived from the original on 2015-06-10. Retrieved 2015-10-14.
- ^ Ettinghausen et al, 105–116, 159–163, 165–166
- ^ Ettinghausen et al, 166–171; Soucek; Piotrovsky & Rogers, 78–84, 64–73
- ^ Ettinghausen et al, 125-127
- ^ McWilliams, Mary. "Bowl Inscribed with a Saying of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib". Harvard Art Museums. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ Volov, Lis (1966). "Plaited Kufic on Samanid Epigraphic Pottery". Ars Orientalis. 6 (1966): 107–33.
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.89; Soucek
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.91; Soucek
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4
- ^ Piotrovsky & Rogers, 64–73
- ^ Piotrovsky & Rogers, 78–93
- ^ Hillenbrand, p.100
- ^ Ettinghausen et al, 128–129, 162, 167; Soucek; Piotrovsky & Rogers, 50–62
- ^ Canby (1993), 25–27
- ^ Blair & Bloom, Chapter 3
- ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
- ^ Canby (1993), Chapter 3
- ^ Blair & Bloom, Chapter 5
- ^ a b c d e Savory
- ^ "UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity". Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
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- ^ Canby (1993), Chapter 2
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- ^ Canby (1993), Chapters 5–7
- ^ Gray, 25-26, 48-49, 64
- ^ Gruber, throughout; see Welch, 95–97 for one of the most famous examples, illustrated below
- ^ In the terminiology of Western illuminated manuscripts, "illumination" usually covers both narrative scenes and decorative elements.
- ^ Canby (1993), 83
- ^ Welch
- ^ a b c Blair & Bloom, 171
- ^ Canby (2009), 19-20
- ISBN 0870995642. Retrieved 14 August 2019.
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 165–182
- ^ Canby (1993), chapter 2; Blair & Bloom, 170–171
- ^ Canby (1993), 77-86
- ^ Canby (1993), 83-88
- ^ Canby (1993), 91-101
- ^ see Welch, 95-97
- ^ Canby (2009), 101-104, 121-123, 137-159
- ^ Canby (2009), 162-163, 218-219
- ^ Blair & Bloom, 178; Canby (2009), 84-87
- ^ Canby (2009), 237
- ^ Canby (2009), 123
- ^ Canby (2009), 160-161
- ^ Canby (1993), 117–124; Piotrovsky & Rogers, 177-181; Scarce
- ^ Canby (1993), 119–124; Piotrovsky & Rogers, 154-161; Scarce
- ^ Canby (1993), 123
- ^ A. Ashraf with Layla Diba, "Kamal-al-molk, Mohammad Gaffari Archived 2015-12-10 at the Wayback Machine, 2010–12, Encyclopædia Iranica
- ^ Scarce; Piotrovsky & Rogers, 154
- ^ Canby (1993), 119–124; Scarce; Piotrovsky & Rogers, 154
References
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Further reading
- Roxburgh, David J.. 2003. "Micrographia: Toward a Visual Logic of Persianate Painting". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, no. 43. [President and Fellows of Harvard College, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology]: 12–30. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20167587.
- Soucek, Priscilla P.. 1987. "Persian Artists in Mughal India: Influences and Transformations". Muqarnas 4. BRILL: 166–81. doi:10.2307/1523102. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523102.