Iraq–Turkey relations
This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. (August 2009) |
Turkey |
Iraq |
---|---|
Diplomatic mission | |
Embassy of Turkey in Baghdad | Embassy of Iraq in Ankara |
Envoy | |
Ali Rıza Güney | Majid Al-Lajmawi |
Iraqi–Turkish relations are foreign relations between Iraq and Turkey. From late 2011 relations between the two countries have undergone strained turbulence. The two countries share historical and cultural heritages.
Turkey has an embassy in Baghdad, and a consulate general in Mosul, Basra and Erbil. While Iraq has an embassy in Ankara and consulate general in Istanbul and Gaziantep. The ambassador of Iraq in Ankara, Turkey, is Mr. Abdul Amir Kamil Abi Tabikh, who has been the representative of Iraq since 5 March 2009. The Iraqi mission in Turkey includes a defense attaché and commerce office in Ankara, and a general consulate in Istanbul.[1] The Ambassador of Turkey in Baghdad, Iraq, is Derya Kanbay, who has been in office since 20 January 2007. The Turkish Embassy in Baghdad also possesses a commerce office.
Political relations in chronological order
Despite the fact that Turkey-Iraq relations have different epochs in history, the two nations are interconnected by various cultural similarities, since Iraqis, along with
World War I and emergence of two states
Before World War I, contemporary Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire. Iraq under Ottoman rule did not have political unity. There were three administrative provinces (vilayet) in current Iraq, organised by Land Law of 1858 and Vilayet Law of 1864 of Ottoman Empire: Basra, Baghdad and Mosul provinces.[2] Political unity of these three provinces came to fruition as a result of World War I and the invasion by the UK of this region.
The Ottoman Empire lost World War I and signed the armistice of Moudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918. According to this armistice, the Ottoman Empire's southern border wasn't clarified. The 16th article of the armistice says that Ottoman armies in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and Hejaz should immediately surrender to Allies.[3]: 197 However, Syrian and Iraqi borders were not clarified in this armistice and the Istanbul government did not accept Mosul as a part of Iraq. Moreover, Mosul was occupied by British forces 16 days after the armistice (15 November 1918) which is an illegal action according to international law.[3]: 199 This was the beginning of the Mosul problem.
The borders issue and
In 1923, a conference was organised in Lausanne, Switzerland, in order to end the Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: Kurtuluş Savaşı; May 19, 1919 – October 29, 1923). The Mosul case was one of the major problems in this conference. One of Britain's major aims was keeping Mosul as a part of British-ruled Iraq instead of Turkey. However, according to Turkish government, the representative of Kurds and Turks, demographically the Kurd and Turk dominated Mosul province should be part of Turkey.[3]: 54 The border dispute between Turkey and Iraq could not be solved in this conference, and the discussion of the dispute was postponed. The third article of Lausanne treaty was that the frontier between Turkey and Iraq would be laid down in friendly arrangement to be concluded within nine months. In the event of no agreement being reached between the two governments within the time mentioned, the dispute would be referred to the League of Nations.[6]
After Lausanne, the negotiation process about the Mosul province was started between Turkey and Great Britain. The Halic Conference was organised on 19 May 1924 in order to solve the dispute. However, instead of compromising, the British side asked the Hakkari region to become part of Iraqi. By reaching a dead end, Britain was trying to bring the dispute to the League of Nations,[3]: 263 where it could be solved in its favour. So, the League of Nations established an impartial committee to investigate the dispute. In December 1925, the Mosul province was awarded to Iraq, leaving the League of Nations open to the accusation that it was little more than the plaything of the British and French governments.[7] The Sheikh Said rebellion also weakened Turkey in terms of diplomacy. This Kurdish and Islamist rebellion was reflected in the international arena. While Turkey was struggling with a Kurdish rebellion its claims upon representing Kurdish people lost its reliability.[8] Turkey's only small prize in the resolution of League of Nations was getting 10% of the Mosul region's petrol for 25 years. Turkey's calculated money on account should be £29,520,000. However, only £3,500,000 was paid to Turkey until 1955. Turkey claimed that they had unpaid credit of £26,000,000 by their share of Mosul petrol until 1986. In 1986 this credit account was removed from the budget.[9]
By 1923, Turkey had also consolidated its independence, expelling foreign powers from its vastly reduced territory, but maintaining positive relations with Western world for trade and developmental purposes. In Iraq, the League of Nations Mandate of 1920 gave control of the Iraqi province to the British, to the disappointment of Iraqi nationalists. From 1920 until Iraq achieved full independence in 1932, Iraqi relations with its former Turkish rulers were guided by the British and dealt primarily with British trade interests.
1932–1958: the Era of Pacts
During the 1930s, Turkey-Iraq relations were at their most cordial, with both the
The Saadabad Pact
The
The Baghdad Pact
After World War II, international relations had changed not only in the Middle East but also globally. Iraq became one of the founders of the
Turkey opted to look in the other direction, being a part of the Western states and, after its
The Baghdad Pact emerged in this atmosphere, with Arab countries and Turkey going different directions. Different foci in their extended foreign relations, however, did not preclude Iraq and Turkey from cooperating in common areas of interest. The Baghdad Pact is the evidence of the cooperation between two countries. On 24 February 1954, Iraq and Turkey signed a mutual-defense pact intended to contain the growth of Soviet influence in the region. Later, in 1955, Iran, Pakistan, and Britain had joined the pact.[3]: 624–5 Turkey's, and also Iraq's, aim was to make other Arabic countries members of the pact. However, this aim failed. First of all, Britain's membership to the pact affected Arab countries negatively. Then, Israel was a more important threat to Arab countries than the Soviet Union. Nasserism and Arab socialism were spread among the Arab countries, and more than socialism, imperialism was seen as an enemy.[10]
The
This experiment ended when Iraq found itself with a new military government and withdrew from the agreement on 14 July 1958, one day before the Baghdad Pact summit in Turkey. At the summit, the situation in Iraq was discussed, and the members of the pact sent a message to the United States to step in on the situation in Iraq. Turkey was more aggressive than the other members of the pact and started to discuss a military intervention. However, the US did not want to take that risk and stopped Turkey. Then, on 31 July 1958, Turkey recognized the new government in Iraq and the tension in Turkey-Iraq relations decreased gradually.[3]: 634
The Baghdad Pact was transformed into
1958–1990
Iraqi regime and its foreign politics changed after the coup d'état in 1958. As well as Iraq, Turkey had undergone a coup d'état in 1960. The army took control of the government, prepared and constituted a new, more democratic, constitution, then re-established the democratic process again.[11] Turkey's relations with other Middle Eastern countries affected its relations with Iraq during the 40s and 50s. After the coup d'état, Turkish foreign policy shifted into a new era, which is not strictly pro-Western and is extremely dominated by NATO. Turkey considered Middle Eastern countries' concerns in its foreign policy making in this era and had better relations with the Middle Eastern countries.[3]: 785–6 In 1976, the Turkish president Fahri Korutürk visited Baghdad.[12]
Petrol trade
Turkey's new foreign policy strategy during the 60s and 70s showed its benefits during the
Water dispute
The issue of water rights became a contention for the two countries beginning in the 1960s, when Turkey implemented a public-works project (
The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over
In 2008, Turkey, Iraq, and Syria agreed to restart the
Iran–Iraq War and Turkey
The establishment of military-backed regimes in Turkey and Iraq by 1980 helped strengthen relations on several core issues, as both governments supported
1990–2003: First Gulf War and after
Following the relatively stabilized era of 1960 to 1990, the
During the lack of authority in Iraq, Turkey's relation with Iraq was in a unique situation. The central government in
2003-post invasion
Turkey's relationship with Iraq has shifted to a new era after the invasion of Iraq. In this era, the integrity of Iraq is as important as PKK problem for Turkey-Iraq relations. The status of Kirkuk and
Also, Turkey's military operations were limited by a result of the invasion. Iraq soils had physically become US soil and Turkey always needed permission of the US to launch a military operation in Iraq.[17]: 297–99 Limited relations with Iraqi Kurdish Leaders, military operations, and very limited relations with central government in the 1990s became useless. So, Turkey had been deadlocked in Iraq and needed a new strategy different from that of the 1990s.
So, after 2008, Turkey came up with a new strategy: communication with all groups in Iraq. For both
In 2015, Turkish diplomats in Mosul were kidnapped by the Islamic State during the War in Iraq 2013-2017.[20] The diplomats were rescued and the consulate reopened after the Islamic State defeat.
Turkish military presence in Iraq
Based on agreements from 1995 and 1997 relating to Turkey's operations against the
On 2017, Turkey signed agreement with Iraq which includes allowing the Turkish army to pursue elements of the PKK in northern Iraq, with the permission of, and in coordination with the Federal Government of Iraq. It also includes opening two liaison offices between Baghdad and Ankara to exchange intelligence and security information between the two countries.[24][25] The Iraqi cabinet in October 2012 announced that Turkish forces crossing into Iraq "is a violation of Iraq's sovereignty and security" as Turkish forces used military bases in Iraq against the PKK.[26]
On April 25, 2017, 5 Peshmerga fighters were killed during a Turkish attack on Sinjar in Iraq. Turkey claimed to have destroyed "terror hubs"; Iraq denounced the strike as a “violation" of its "sovereignty”.[27]
On August 23, 2019, Turkish army launched Operation Claw-3 in northern Iraq against PKK.[28]
In May 2021, Iraq protested to Turkish diplomats after the visit of the Turkish Minister of Defense, the Turkish Chief of the General Staff and the Turkish Land Forces Commander to a Turkish base in northern Iraq. The Iraq's Foreign Ministry said that "categorically rejects the continuing violations of Iraqi sovereignty ... by the Turkish military forces.”[29]
In April 2022, Turkey began a military operation in northern Iraq against the PKK which was called Operation Claw-Lock. The Iraqi foreign minister condemned the attack, alleging it to be a violation of Iraq's sovereignty.[30]
Current relations
In an earlier sign that Iraq's neighbours were improving their ties with Baghdad, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan became the first Turkish leader to visit Baghdad in nearly 20 years, in 2008. That visit sought to strengthen ties strained in early 2008 by attacks launched into Turkey by Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) rebels based in remote parts of northern Iraq.[31]
Tensions have risen between the
In March 2009, the presidents exchanged visits to the other country. Jalal Talabani attended the 5th World Water Forum in Istanbul and suggested a general amnesty for the PKK militants as a solution to the Turkish Kurdish conflict.[12] The next week president Abdullah Gül visited Baghdad, where he met with Jalal Talabani. Gül aimed for a better cooperation in the fight against the PKK.[12]
On 1 May 2009,
On 8 May, Kurdish Natural Resources Minister Ashti Hawrami announced, "Today I received an email message from the
Iraq's parliament called on its government to renegotiate partnership agreements with Turkey, Syria, and Iran following a 12 May report from Iraqi Water Committee Chairman Karim al-Yacoubi that water levels had fallen to dangerous levels because neighbouring countries take too much water from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and their tributaries.[40] Iraqi deputy Saleh al-Mutlaq attended a 22 May meeting with Turkish Prime Minister Erdoğan and President Gül, while Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu met with Iraqi Foreign Minister Hoshyar Zebari at the 23 May meeting of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Council of Foreign Ministers and announced, "We will give as much water as possible to our Iraqi and Syrian friends."[41] According to al-Mutlaq, "They have since increased the quantities of water coming to Iraq by 130 cubic centimetres per second. It is not enough, but it has partly solved the water problems preventing our farmers from planting rice."[42]
Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki confronted the activities of the PKK, following the May 15 foundation laying ceremony of a Turkish-constructed hospital in Karbala, by claiming that "We have a reliable cooperation with Turkey to bring an end to this terrorist organisation and other organisations that want to damage other neighbouring countries, who are our friends. When it comes to Turkey's possible intervention in northern Iraq, the issue is more massive and complicated than it is assumed to be. There is the need for a grand cooperation", and "I know the mountains where the PKK take shelter; they are precipitous mountains. We will find ways to stop the activities of this terror organisation and to finish this organisation through cooperation and understanding between us and Turkey."[43] Iraqi Kurdish Prime Minister Nechirvan Barzani confirmed, "The Turkish Army threatened an incursion. But with the dialogue built recently, all these problems have been overcome", and "I have always attached a great deal of importance to our relations with Turkey because Turkey is not only a neighbouring country but also very important for us."[44]
On October 19, 2011, twenty-four soldiers were killed and 18 injured during a PPK attack in southeastern Turkey. Rockets were launched at security forces and military sites in the town of Cukurca. Turkey retaliated with air strikes on Kurdish sites in northern Iraq. Several rebels died. The Turkish parliament recently renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq."[45]
Iraqi President Barham Salih condemned the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, stating that "Turkey’s military incursion into Syria is a grave escalation; will cause untold humanitarian suffering, empower terrorist groups. The world must unite to avert a catastrophe, promote political resolution to the rights of all Syrians, including Kurds, to peace, dignity and security".[46]
Diplomacy
|
|
See also
- Foreign relations of Iraq
- Foreign relations of Turkey
- Turks in Iraq
- Iraqis in Turkey
- List of ambassadors of Turkey to Iraq
References
- ^ "Yerleşik Diplomatik ve Konsüler Misyonlar / T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı" (in Turkish). Mfa.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 7 December 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g Tripp, C. (2007). A History of Iraq (3rd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. p. 15.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Oran, B. (2008). Turk Dis Politikasi [Turkish Foreign Policy] (13th ed.). Istanbul: Iletisim Y.
- ^ a b c d Hale, W. (2000). Turkish Foreign Policy. London: Frank Cass.
- ^ McDowall, D. (1996). A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 190.
- ISBN 1-59333-413-3.
- ^ Stansfield, G. (2007). Iraq. Cambridge: Polity. p. 46.
- ^ Mumcu, U. (1991). Kurt-İslam Ayaklanması 1919–1925 (in Turkish). Istanbul: Tekin Yayinlari.
- ^ Ulugbay, H. (2003). Imparatorluktan Cumhuriyete (in Turkish). Ankara: Ayrac Y.
- ^ Soysal, I. (1990). "The 1955 Baghdad Pact". Studies on Turkish Arab Relations: 43–115.
- ^ Zurcher, E.J. (1993). Modernlesen Turkiye'nin Tarihi (in Turkish). Istanbul: Iletisim. pp. 356–8.
- ^ a b c "A symbolic trip, pragmatic agenda". Hürriyet Daily News (in Turkish). 24 March 2009. Retrieved 2022-10-26.
- ^ Uzgel, I. (1992). "GÜVENSİZLİK ÜÇGENİ: TÜRKİYE, SURİYE, IRAK VE SU SORUNU". MÜLKİYELİLER BİRLİĞİ DERGİSİ (in Turkish). 162: 47–52.
- ^ Mohammed, Muhanad (23 May 2009). "Turkey lets more water out of dams to Iraq: MP". Reuters. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ Turkey to up Euphrates flow to Iraq, 19 September 2009, archived from the original on 31 December 2010, retrieved 17 October 2009
- ^ Inanc, G. (2008). Turk Diplomasisinde Irak 1978–1997 (in Turkish). Istanbul: Kultur Y. pp. 57–59.
- ^ a b c Ozdag, U. (2008). Turk Ordusunun Kuzey Irak Operasyonlari (in Turkish). Istanbul: Pegasus.
- ^ a b Ozpek, B.B. (2008). "3". In Ortadogu Analiz (ed.). TURKEY-NORTHERN IRAQ RELATIONS AFTER SOFA (Status of Force Agreement): A DIPLOMATIC DIMENSION.
- ^ O'Leary, B.; McGarry, J.; Salih, K. (2006). The Future of Kurdistan. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Press. pp. 188–189.
- ^ "Isis militants kidnap Turkish diplomats after seizing consulate in Mosul". The Guardian. 11 June 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2015.
- ^ "Unwelcome Guests: The Turkish Military Bases in Northern Iraq". The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "Iraq to Expel Foreign Troops, End Turkish Military Presence - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ Humeyra Pamuk and Orhan Coskun (5 December 2015). "Turkish soldiers training Iraqi troops near Mosul: sources". Reuters. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "Iraq says pact with Turkey best way to tackle PKK". Reuters. 2007-10-09. Retrieved 2022-01-04.
- ^ "اتفاق أمني عراقي تركي لملاحقة حزب العمال الكردستاني". www.aljazeera.net (in Arabic). Retrieved 2022-01-04.
- ^ Naeem, Asad (2 October 2012). "Baghdad moves to end Turkish presence in north Iraq". Business Recorder. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- ^ "Turkey hits PKK targets in Iraq, Syria". Hurriet Daily News. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ Turkey’s Claw-3 Operation continues in northern Iraq
- ^ Iraq's Foreign Ministry summons Turkish envoy
- ISSN 0174-4909. Retrieved 2022-04-19.
- ^ "Jordan's Abdullah first Arab leader to visit Iraq". Abc.net.au. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 11 August 2008. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
- ^ Couvas, Jacques N. (30 October 2007). "TURKEY:Relations with Iraq become explosive". Inter Press Service. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ "PM Erdoğan says Turkey defends formation of Iraqi state on basis of Iraq nationality". Today's Zaman. 3 April 2009. Archived from the original on 28 September 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ Yanatma, Servet; Kurt, Süleyman (2 May 2009). "Iraq's Sadr meets Erdoğan". Today's Zaman.
- ^ Çobanoğlu, Çağri (4 May 2009). "Iraq's Sadr meets Erdoğan". Today's Zaman.
- ^ Kart, Emine (14 May 2009). "US official rules out uneasiness with al-Sadr's visit". Today's Zaman.
- ^ "Iraq will export oil from Kurdish fields via Turkey". Today's Zaman. 11 May 2009.
- ^ "Iraqi Kurds launch 'historic' oil export via Turkey". Today's Zaman. 1 June 2009.
- ^ "Exporting oil might contribute to solution of Kurdish problem". Today's Zaman. 3 June 2009.
- ^ "Iraq demands more water from neighbours". Today's Zaman. 13 May 2009.
- ^ "Davutoğlu heads to Baku with Mammadyarov aboard his plane". Today's Zaman. 25 May 2009.
- ^ "Turkey lets more water out of dams to Iraq". Today's Zaman. 25 May 2009.
- ^ "Maliki convinced Iraq, Turkey will find ways to eliminate PKK". Today's Zaman. 18 May 2009.
- ^ "Barzani: Problems with Turkey overcome". Today's Zaman. 27 May 2009.
- ^ "24 soldiers killed in attack in Turkey". CNN. 19 October 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ "World reacts to Turkey's military operation in northeast Syria". Al-Jazeera. 10 October 2019.