Iraqi–Kurdish conflict

Iraqi–Kurdish conflict (1919-present)
Kurdish refugees in camps along the Turkey-Iraq border, 1991
Date 1919–present (105 years, 10 months, 3 weeks and 1 day) Location Iraq Status Ongoing
Belligerents
Kingdom of Kurdistan (1922–1924) KDP PUK ICP INC Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq Supported by:  Israel (1961–1970)  Iran (before 1988)  Syria (1980–1988)  Iraqi Kurdistan Enforcing No-Fly Zone per UNSC Resolution 688:  United States  United Kingdom  France Kurdistan Regional Government (2005-present)	Mandatory Iraq Supported by:  United Kingdom (1922–1924) Kingdom of Iraq Iraqi Republic Ba'athist Iraq Republican Guard Iraqi Ground Forces Iraqi Police Mukhabarat National Defense Battalions (until 1991) Central Government of Iraq (2005-present)
Commanders and leaders
Mahmud Barzanji Ahmed Barzani Mustafa Barzani Idris Barzani Masoud Barzani Babakir Zebari Mahmoud Ezidi † Jalal Talabani Ibrahim Ahmad Ali Askari † Nawshirwan Mustafa Kosrat Rasul Ali Mama Risha † Uthman Abd-Asis Ahmed Chalabi Aziz Muhammad Mohsen Rezaee Ali Sayad Shirazi Abdul Aziz al-Hakim John Shalikashvili	Faisal I of Iraq Faisal II of Iraq Abd al-Karim Qasim  Abdul Salam Arif  Abdul Rahman Arif Tahir Yahya  Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr † Saddam Hussein  Ali Hassan al-Majid  Taha Yassin Ramadan  Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri Tariq Aziz Saddam Kamel Qusay Hussein † Uday Hussein †
Strength
KDP: 15,000–20,000 (1962)[1][2] 6,000 (1970)[3] 50,000-60,000 (1974)[4] KDP & PUK: 5,000 (1980)[5] 100,000 (1991)[6]  Iraqi Kurdistan 70,000 (2003)[7]	Iraqi Armed Forces 48,000 (1969)[8] 90,000 (1974)[8] 180,000 (1978)[9] 300,000 (1980)[10] 1,000,000 (1988)[10] 382,500 (1992)[11] 424,000 (2002)[12]
Casualties and losses
163,800–345,100 killed[a] Millions of Kurds displaced and turned refugees

The Iraqi–Kurdish conflict consists of a series of wars, rebellions and disputes between the Kurds and the central authority of Iraq starting in the 20th century shortly after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. Some put the marking point of the conflict beginning to the attempt by Mahmud Barzanji to establish an independent Kingdom of Kurdistan,^[13] while others relate to the conflict as only the post-1961 insurrection by the Barzanis.^[14]

Since the

The first chapter of the Iraqi–Kurdish dispute followed the end of World War I and the arrival of British forces. Mahmud Barzanji began secession attempts in 1919 and in 1922 proclaimed the short-lived Kingdom of Kurdistan. Though Mahmud's insurrections were defeated, another Kurdish sheikh, Ahmed Barzani, began to actively oppose the central rule of the Mandatory Iraq during the 1920s. The first of the major Barzani revolts took place in 1931, after Barzani, one of the most prominent Kurdish tribal leaders, succeeded in defeating a number of other Kurdish tribes.^[15] He ultimately failed and took refuge in Turkey. The next serious Kurdish secession attempt was made by his younger brother Mustafa Barzani in 1943, but that revolt failed as well, resulting in the exiling of Mustafa to Iran, where he participated in an attempt to form the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad.

In 1958, the younger Barzani and his fighters returned to Iraq from exile, and an attempt was made to negotiate Kurdish autonomy in the north with the new Iraqi administration of Gen.

The conflict re-emerged as part of the Iran–Iraq War, with the two Kurdish parties collaborating against Saddam Hussein, while receiving military support from the Islamic Republic of Iran. By 1986, the Iraqi government conducted a genocidal campaign known as Al-Anfal, to oust the Kurdish fighters and take revenge on the Kurdish population—an act often described as the Kurdish genocide, with an estimated 50,000–200,000 casualties. The Iran-Iraq war ended in 1988.

In the aftermath of the Gulf War, in 1991, a series of uprisings happened in the north and south of the country. This, combined with the enforcing of the northern-southern no-fly zones by the United States, United Kingdom and France, and the subsequent withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces from parts of northern Iraq, allowed the Kurds to regain control in the north by filling the vacuum. In the mid-1990s the internal conflict between the KDP and PUK erupted once again, resulting in a bloody civil war, with Iraq and Iran supporting both KDP and PUK respectively. The conflict ended in 1997, with the signing of the Washington Agreement.

Another critical event was the

Ahmed Barzani was later forced to flee to Turkey, where he was held in detention and then sent to exile in the south of Iraq. Although initially a tribal dispute, the involvement of the Iraqi government inadvertently led to the growth of Shaykh Ahmad and Mulla Mustafa Barzani as prominent Kurdish leaders.^[17]

The 1943–1945 Kurdish revolt in Iraq was a Kurdish nationalistic insurrection in the Kingdom of Iraq, during World War II. The revolt was led by Mustafa Barzani and later joined by his older brother Ahmed Barzani, the leader of the previous Kurdish revolt in the Kingdom of Iraq. The revolt, initiating in 1943, was eventually put down by Iraqi military assault in late 1945, combined with the defection of a number of Kurdish tribes. As a result, the Barzanis retreated with much of their forces into Iranian Kurdistan, joining the local Kurdish elements in establishing the Republic of Mahabad.

After the

First Iraqi–Kurdish War^[18] or Barzani Rebellion was a major event of the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict, lasting from 1961 to 1970. The struggle was led by Mustafa Barzani in an attempt to establish an independent Kurdish state in northern Iraq. Throughout the 1960s the uprising escalated into a long war, which failed to resolve despite internal power changes in Iraq. The war ended with a stalemate by 1970, resulting in between 75,000^[19] to 105,000 casualties.^[20] A series of Iraqi–Kurdish negotiations followed the war in an attempt to resolve the conflict.

A

Second Iraqi–Kurdish War was an offensive, led by Iraqi forces against rebel

The PUK insurgency was a low-level militant campaign by the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) against the state of Iraq, after the defeat of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) in the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War, which forced the KDP organization to declare a ceasefire and move into exile. Due to lack of foreign support, however, the guerrillas were only able to operate in the highest regions of northern Iraq's mountains.^[22] The PUK also faced the KDP, the KDPI, led by Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, and Iran supporting the Iraqis at various occasions. The insurgency dimmed with the 1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran.

The policies are sometimes referred as "internal colonialism",[24] described by Francis Kofi Abiew as a "Colonial 'Arabization'" program, including large-scale Kurdish deportations and forced Arab settlement in the region.^[25]

Between 1980 and 1988, the conflict intensified as the

In August 1991, the United States, United Kingdom and France enforced two no-fly zones in Iraq after the latter’s loss in the

The "two-state solution" for the conflict refers to the permanent separation of Kurdish-populated areas from Iraq, as opposed to retaining Iraqi unity within a federal state. It would change the long-term status which has existed in the country following the formation of the Kurdish autonomy in Northern Iraq in 1991 facilitated by the enforcement of the no-fly zones.^[32][33] Another solution that has been proposed is the "three-state solution", dividing the country into three independent states for its three major components: the Shia Arabs, the Sunni Arabs and the Kurds.^[34][35]

The

Arriving in July 2002 to Iraqi Kurdistan, the CIA seldom worked with the Peshmerga, despite their claim to be on a counterterrorism mission against Ansar al-Islam. To the disappointment of PUK Peshmerga intent on destroying Ansar al-Islam, the true mission of the CIA was to acquire intelligence about the Iraqi government and military. CIA-Peshmerga operations eventually went beyond the scope of intelligence gathering however, as PUK Peshmerga were used to destroy key rail lines and buildings prior to the U.S. attack in March 2003.^[36] Following Turkey's decision to deny any official use of its territory, the Coalition was forced to modify the planned simultaneous attack from north and south.^[37] Special Operations forces from the CIA and US Army managed to build and lead the Kurdish Peshmerga into an effective force and assault for the North.

On March 20, 2003, at approximately 02:30

Despite their well-armed adversaries, during the operation only 24 Peshmerga were killed in the fighting, compared the opposite body count of over 300.[36]

Following the withdrawal of occupational forces from Iraq, tensions between Iraqi Kurdistan and the central Iraqi government mounted through 2011–2012 on the issues of power sharing, oil and gas, and territorial control.^[39] In April 2012, the president of Iraq's semi-autonomous northern Kurdish region demanded that officials agree to their demands or face consequences of a secession from Baghdad by September 2012.^[40]

In September 2012, the Iraqi government ordered the

On 16 November 2012, a military clash between the Iraqi forces and the Peshmerga resulted in one person killed.[41] CNN reported that 2 people were killed (one of them an Iraqi soldier) and 10 wounded in clashes at the Tuz Khurmato town.^[42]

On the night of November 19, it was reported that clashes between security forces of the central Iraqi government and the KRG forces in Tigrit left 12 Iraqi soldiers and one civilian dead, according to Doğan news agency.^[43] The clash erupted when Iraqi soldiers attempted to enter northern Iraq; Peshmergas tried to prevent the Iraqi soldiers from entering the area upon Barzani's instructions.^[43] There was no confirmation of the event.

On November 25, it was reported that Iraqi Kurdistan sent reinforcements to a disputed area, where its troops are "involved in a standoff with the Iraqi army", despite calls on both sides for dialogue to calm the situation.^[44]

On December 11, Iraqi Kurdistan President Massoud Barzani, dressed in a military uniform, visited Kurdish-controlled areas of Kirkuk, a city long seen as a flashpoint for Arab-Kurdish tensions after the US military withdrawal in December 2011.^[45] Following Massoud Barzani's visit of Kurdish troops stationed in the disputed area near Kirkuk, Iraqi Prime Minister Maliki's party – The State of Law – issued a statement that "the visit of the President of Kurdistan Region Massoud Barzani and his son wearing a military helmet to inspect the battlefronts in Kirkuk province is a 'declaration of war' on all Iraqis not only Maliki, and even on President Jalal Talabani".^[46]

In late 2013, the

In 2014, Iraqi army units withdrew from large parts of northern Iraq in the face of attacks by the

In November 2016, Amnesty International reported that Kurdish authorities (namely Peshmerga and Asayish) had taken part in Kurdification (forced displacement of Arabs) in Kirkuk, namely by bulldozing homes and banishing the residents.^[50]

Following the defeat of

Since October 2017, Kurdish news reports have made claims of Arabisation and forced demographic displacement of Kurds, most notably in Kirkuk, Tuz Khurmatu and Khanaqin.[53]^[54][55] In June 2024, an Iraqi Kurdish source claimed that the Arabisation campaign of Kirkuk, under the administration of Arab governor Rakan Al-Jubouri, surpassed even the level committed by the previous Ba'athist regime.^[56]

In light of the Kurdistan Region initiating independent oil exports to

The 2023 unrest in Kirkuk was an incident which resulted in four Kurdish protesters being killed. The incident involved Arab, Kurdish and Turkmen residents of the city of Kirkuk. It began on 26 August 2023, after a building that used to be the headquarters of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (which was used at the time by the Iraqi Armed Forces as a Joint Operations Command) was about to be transferred back to the former following an order by the Prime Minister of Iraq. Two days later, on 28 August, Arab and Turkmen anti-KDP residents of Kirkuk staged a sit-in in front of the building to prevent its transfer as well as blocked the main road between Erbil and Kirkuk. In response, pro-KDP Kurds iniated counter-protests as well as demanded the opening of the blocked road. Iraqi security forces responded by opening fire on the Kurdish protesters. Following this, the government imposed a curfew in Kirkuk. The Supreme Court of Iraq subsequently issued a verdict halting the transfer of the building back to KDP, which was criticized by the latter.

In September 2023, Al-Monitor published an article claiming that the Prime Minister of the KRG,

Yerevan Saeed, director of the 'Global Kurdish Initiative for Peace' at American University in Washington, expressed concerns in February 2024 about the future of the Kurdistan Region if problems persist. He stated that the combined effect of Baghdad's obstructive attitude towards the Kurdistan Region as well as intra-Kurdish problems will “inevitably result in the diminishment of the Kurdistan Region’s political, legal, and economic influence, and could potentially lead to its dissolution."[62]

On 22 October 2023, clashes between Iraqi security forces and Peshmerga occurred in the town of

In March 2024, after a series of court rulings by the Supreme Court of Iraq targeting the Kurdistan Region, Abdul Rahman Zibari a Kurdish judge resigned in protest, describing the Court's actions as "a move towards centralization and a blatant violation of the constitutional rights of the Kurdistan Region".^[64] In his resignation statement, the judge hinted at concerns about Baghdad's departure from the principles of federalism, the political system adopted after the US-led invasion of Iraq.^[65][66] The Supreme Court subsequently announced that the resignation of Zibari will not hinder its work.

The KDP also announced that it will not participate in the upcoming regional parliamentary elections dated June 10, 2024, citing "unconstitutional rulings against the Kurdistan Region in the past four years" and labeling the actions of the Supreme Court as "a clear and dangerous violation of the constitution” and an attempt to “return Iraq to a centralized system."^{[67][needs update]}

[a].^ Iraqi–Kurdish conflict (combined casualty figure until 2003; 163,800–345,100):

Mahmud Barzanji revolts (1919–1924) – unknown

Ahmed Barzani revolt (1931–1932) – hundreds killed

1943 Barzani revolt (1943–1945) – hundreds killed

First Iraqi–Kurdish War (1961–1970) – 12,000–105,000 killed.^[68]

Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975) – 9,000 killed.^[69]

PUK insurgency (1976–1978) – 800 killed.

1980

Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein - 25,000^{[70][71][clarification needed}

]

Iraqi Kurdish uprising (1982–1988)

– 50,000–198,000 killed.

Battle of Sulaymaniyah (1991) – 700–2,000 killed.

Iraqi Kurdish Civil War (1994–1997) – 3,000^[72]–5,000 killed

2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Viking Hammer) – 300 Islamists killed, at least 24 Peshmerga killed;^[36] unknown number of Iraqi agents "eliminated".

Battle of Kirkuk

per Kirkuk hospital), 105 Peshmerga killed, 200 wounded, 45 detained as well as 400 Kurdish civilians killed, 200 missing in Kirkuk (per Kurdish sources) and 183,000 displaced (per United Nations)

2023 unrest in Kirkuk – 4 Kurdish protesters killed, 16 injured, 40 detained

2023 Makhmour clashes – 2 Iraqi soldiers killed, 6 injured and 4 Peshmerga killed, 5 injured

• Kurdish–Turkish conflict
• Kurdish separatism in Iran
• Rojava conflict
• Legislative Council of the Autonomous Kurdistan Region
• A Modern History of the Kurds by David McDowall