Isabella I of Castile
Isabella I | |
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Queen consort of Aragon | |
Tenure | 20 January 1479 – 26 November 1504 |
Born | 22 April 1451 Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Ávila, Castile |
Died | 26 November 1504 (aged 53) Medina del Campo, Valladolid, Castile |
Burial | , Andalusia, Spain |
Spouse | |
Issue more... | |
House | Trastámara |
Father | John II of Castile |
Mother | Isabella of Portugal |
Religion | Roman Catholicism |
Signature |
Isabella I (
After a struggle to claim the throne, Isabella reorganized the governmental system, brought the crime rate down, and unburdened the kingdom of the debt,
Isabella I of Castile and
Life
Early years
Isabella was born in Madrigal de las Altas Torres to John II of Castile and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, on 22 April 1451.[7] At the time of Isabella's birth, she was second in line to the throne after her older half-brother Henry IV of Castile.[6] Henry was 26 at that time and married, but childless. Isabella's younger brother Alfonso of Castile was born two years later on 17 November 1453, demoting her position to third in line.[8] When her father died in 1454, her half-brother ascended to the throne as King Henry IV of Castile. Isabella and her brother Alfonso were left in King Henry's care.[9] Isabella, her mother, and Alfonso then moved to Arévalo.[6][10]
These were times of turmoil for Isabella. The living conditions at their castle in Arévalo were poor, and they suffered from a shortage of money. Although her father arranged in his will for his children to be financially well taken care of, King Henry did not comply with their father's wishes, either from a desire to keep his half-siblings restricted or from ineptitude.[9] Even though her living conditions were difficult, Isabella was instructed in lessons of practical piety and in a deep reverence for religion under the supervision of her mother.[10]
When the king's wife, Joan of Portugal, was about to give birth to their daughter Joanna, Isabella and her brother Alfonso were summoned to court in Segovia to come under the direct supervision of the king and to finish their education.[6] Alfonso was placed in the care of a tutor while Isabella became part of the queen's household.[11]
Some of Isabella's living conditions improved in Segovia. She always had food and clothing and lived in a
After a rumor spread that Joanna was not actually the daughter of King Henry but rather of a royal favorite,
Failed betrothals
The question of Isabella's marriage was not a new one. She had, at the age of six, a betrothal to
Ferdinand's uncle
In 1465, an attempt was made to marry Isabella to Afonso V of Portugal, Henry's brother-in-law.[6] Through the medium of the queen and Count of Ledesma, a Portuguese alliance was made.[19] Isabella, however, was wary of the marriage and refused to consent.[20]
A civil war broke out in Castile over King Henry's inability to act as sovereign. Henry now needed a quick way to please the rebels of the kingdom. As part of an agreement to restore peace, Isabella was then to be betrothed to Pedro Girón Acuña Pacheco, Master of the Order of Calatrava and brother to the king's favorite, Juan Pacheco.[19] In return, Don Pedro would pay into the royal treasury an enormous sum of money. Seeing no alternative, Henry agreed to the marriage. Isabella was aghast and prayed to God that the marriage would not come to pass. Her prayers were answered when Don Pedro suddenly fell ill and died while on his way to meet his fiancée.[19][21]
When Henry had recognized Isabella as his heir-presumptive on 19 September 1468, he had also promised that his half-sister should not be compelled to marry against her will, while she in return had agreed to obtain his consent.
After this failed attempt, Henry once again went against his promises and tried to marry Isabella to Louis XI's brother Charles, Duke of Berry.[24] In Henry's eyes, this alliance would cement the friendship of Castile and France as well as remove Isabella from Castilian affairs. However, Isabella once again refused the proposal. Meanwhile, John II of Aragon negotiated in secret with Isabella a wedding to his son Ferdinand.[25] After her marriage to Ferdinand ,several anonymous journal entries claim the queen was unfaithful and plotted against the king.
Marriage
On 18 October 1469, the formal betrothal took place.
Coronation and war with Portugal
On 12 December 1474, news of King Henry IV's death in
Isabella's reign got off to a rocky start. King Henry IV had named Isabella as his successor, so when she ascended to the throne in 1474, there were already several plots against her.
In May 1475, King Afonso and his army crossed into Spain and advanced to
But despite its uncertain[44][45] outcome, the Battle of Toro represented a great political victory[46][47][48][49] for the Catholic Monarchs, assuring them the throne since the supporters of Joanna la Beltraneja disbanded and the Portuguese army, without allies, left Castile. As summarized by the historian
Both armies faced each other at the camps of Toro resulting in an indecisive battle. But while the Portuguese King reorganized his troops, Ferdinand sent news to all the cities of Castile and to several foreign kingdoms informing them about a huge victory where the Portuguese were crushed. Faced with these news, the party of "la Beltraneja" [Joanna] was dissolved and the Portuguese were forced to return to their kingdom.[50]
With great political vision, Isabella took advantage of the moment and convoked courts at Madrigal-Segovia (April–October 1476)[51] where her eldest child and daughter Isabella was first sworn as heiress to Castile's crown. That was equivalent to legitimizing Isabella's own throne.
In August of the same year, Isabella proved her abilities as a powerful ruler on her own. A rebellion broke out in Segovia, and Isabella rode out to suppress it, as her husband Ferdinand was off fighting at the time. Going against the advice of her male advisors, Isabella rode by herself into the city to negotiate with the rebels. She was successful and the rebellion was quickly brought to an end.[52] Two years later, Isabella further secured her place as ruler with the birth of her son John, Prince of Asturias, on 30 June 1478. To many, the presence of a male heir legitimized her place as ruler.
Meanwhile, the Castilian and Portuguese fleets fought for hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean and for the wealth of Guinea (gold and slaves), where the decisive naval Battle of Guinea was fought.[53][54]
End of the war and consequences
The war dragged on for another three years
At Alcáçovas, Isabella and Ferdinand had secured the throne, but the Portuguese exclusive right of navigation and commerce in all of the Atlantic Ocean south of the Canary Islands meant that Spain was practically blocked out of the Atlantic and was deprived of the gold of Guinea, which induced anger in Andalusia.[53] Spanish academic Antonio Rumeu de Armas claims that with the peace treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479, the Catholic Monarchs "... buy the peace at an excessively expensive price ..."[64] and historian Mª Monserrat León Guerrero added that they "... find themselves forced to abandon their expansion by the Atlantic ...".[65]
The Columbus gambit
Christopher Columbus freed Castile from this difficult situation, because his New World discovery led to a new and much more balanced sharing of the Atlantic at Tordesillas in 1494. As the orders received by Columbus in his first voyage (1492) show: "[the Catholic Monarchs] have always in mind that the limits signed in the share of Alcáçovas should not be overcome, and thus they insist with Columbus to sail along the parallel of Canary."[65] Thus, by sponsoring the Columbian adventure to the west, the Spanish monarchs were trying the only remaining path of expansion. Now that she had succeeded in securing her place on the Castilian throne, she could begin to institute the reforms that she planned for the kingdom.
Reign
Regulation of crime
When Isabella came to the throne in 1474, Castile was in a state of despair due to her brother Henry's reign. It was known that Henry IV was a big spender and did little to enforce the laws of his kingdom. It was even said by one Castilian denizen of the time that murder, rape, and robbery happened without punishment.[66] Because of this, Isabella needed desperately to find a way to reform her kingdom. Due to the measures she imposed, historians during her lifetime saw her to be more inclined to justice than to mercy, and indeed far more rigorous and unforgiving than her husband Ferdinand.[67]
La Santa Hermandad
Isabella's first major reform came during the cortes of Madrigal in 1476 in the form of a police force, La Santa Hermandad (the Holy Brotherhood). Although 1476 was not the first time that Castile had seen the Hermandad, it was the first time that the police force was used by the crown.[68] During the late medieval period, the expression hermandad had been used to describe groups of men who came together of their own accord to regulate law and order by patrolling the roads and countryside and punishing malefactors.[69] These brotherhoods had usually been suppressed by the monarch, however.
Furthermore, before 1476, the justice system in most parts of the country was effectively under the control of dissident members of the nobility rather than royal officials.
Other criminal reforms
Keeping with her reformation of the regulation of laws, in 1481 Isabella charged two officials with restoring peace in Galicia. This turbulent province had been the prey of tyrant nobles since the days of Isabella's father, John II.[73] Robbers had infested the highways and oppressed the smaller towns and villages. The officials Isabella charged set off with the Herculean task of restoring peace for the province and were ultimately successful. Indeed, they drove over 1,500 robbers from Galicia.[74]
Finances
From the very beginning of her reign, Isabella fully grasped the importance of restoring the Crown's finances. The reign of Henry IV had left the Kingdom of Castile in great debt. Upon examination, it was found that the chief cause of the nation's poverty was the wholesale alienation of royal estates during Henry's reign.[75] To make money, Henry had sold off royal estates at prices well below their value. The Cortes of Toledo of 1480 came to the conclusion that the only hope of lasting financial reform lay in a resumption of these alienated lands and rents. This decision was warmly approved by many leading nobles of the court, but Isabella was reluctant to take such drastic measures. It was decided that the Archbishop of Toledo would hold an enquiry into the tenure of estates and rents acquired during Henry IV's reign. Those that had not been granted as a reward for services were to be restored without compensation, while those that had been sold at a price far below their real value were to be bought back at the same sum. While many of the nobility were forced to pay large sums of money for their estates, the royal treasury became even richer. Isabella's one stipulation was that there would be no revocation of gifts made to churches, hospitals, or the poor.[76]
Another issue of money was the overproduction of coinage and the abundance of mints in the kingdom. During Henry's reign, the number of mints regularly producing money had increased from just five to 150.[75] Much of the coinage produced in these mints was nearly worthless. During the first year of her reign, Isabella established a monopoly over the royal mints and fixed a legal standard to which the coinage had to approximate[citation needed]. By shutting down many of the mints and taking royal control over the production of money, Isabella restored the confidence of the public in the Crown's ability to handle the kingdom's finances.
Government
Both Isabella and Ferdinand established very few new governmental and administrative institutions in their respective kingdoms. Especially in Castile, their main achievement was to use more effectively the institutions that had existed during the reigns of John II and Henry IV.[77] Historically, the center of the Castilian government had been the royal household, together with its surrounding court. The household was traditionally divided into two overlapping bodies. The first body was made up of household officials, mainly people of the nobility, who carried out governmental and political functions for which they received special payment. The second body was made up of some 200 permanent servants or continos who performed a wide range of confidential functions on behalf of the rulers.[78] By the 1470s, when Isabella began to take a firm grip on the royal administration, the senior offices of the royal household were simply honorary titles and held strictly by the nobility. The positions of a more secretarial nature were often held by senior churchmen. Substantial revenues were attached to such offices and were therefore enjoyed greatly, on an effectively hereditary basis, by the great Castilian houses of nobility. While the nobles held the titles, individuals of lesser breeding did the real work.[79]
Traditionally, the main advisory body to the rulers of Castile was the Royal Council. The council, under the monarch, had full power to resolve all legal and political disputes. The council was responsible for supervising all senior administrative officials, such as the Crown representatives in all of the major towns. It was also the supreme judicial tribunal of the kingdom.[80] In 1480, during the Cortes of Toledo, Isabella made many reforms to the Royal Council. Previously there had been two distinct yet overlapping categories of royal councillor. One formed a group which possessed both judicial and administrative responsibilities. This portion consisted of some bishops, some nobles, and an increasingly important element of professional administrators with legal training known as letrados. The second category of traditional councillor had a less formal role. This role depended greatly on the individuals' political influence and personal influence with the monarch. During Isabella's reign, the role of this second category was completely eliminated.[81] As mentioned previously, Isabella had little care for personal bribes or favors. Because of this, this second type of councillor, usually of the nobility, was only allowed to attend the council of Castile as an observer.
Isabella began to rely more on the professional administrators than ever before. These men were mostly of the bourgeoisie or lesser nobility. The council was also rearranged and it was officially settled that one bishop, three caballeros, and eight or nine lawyers would serve on the council at a time. While the nobles were no longer directly involved in the matters of state, they were welcome to attend the meetings. Isabella hoped that forcing the nobility to choose whether to participate or not would weed out those who were not dedicated to the state and its cause.[82]
Isabella also saw the need to provide a personal relationship between herself as the monarch and her subjects. Therefore, Isabella and Ferdinand set aside a time every Friday during which they themselves would sit and allow people to come to them with complaints. This was a new form of personal justice that Castile had not seen before. The Council of State was reformed and presided over by the king and queen. This department of public affairs dealt mainly with foreign negotiations, hearing embassies, and transacting business with the Court of Rome. In addition to these departments, there was also a Supreme Court of the Santa Hermandad, a Council of Finance, and a Council for settling purely Aragonese matters.[83] Although Isabella made many reforms that seem to have made the Cortes stronger, in actuality the Cortes lost political power during the reigns of Isabella and Ferdinand. Isabella and her husband moved in the direction of a non-parliamentary government and the Cortes became an almost passive advisory body, giving automatic assent to legislation which had been drafted by the royal administration.[84]
After the reforms of the Cortes of Toledo, the queen ordered a noted jurist, Alfonso Diaz de Montalvo, to undertake the task of clearing away legal rubbish and compiling what remained into a comprehensive code. Within four years the work stood completed in eight bulky volumes and the Ordenanzas Reales took their place on legal bookshelves.[85]
Events of 1492
Granada
At the end of the Reconquista, only Granada was left for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer. The Emirate of Granada had been held by the Muslim Nasrid dynasty since the mid-13th century.[86] Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, it had withstood the long process of the Reconquista. On 1 February 1482, the king and queen reached Medina del Campo and this is generally considered the beginning of the Granada War. While Isabella's and Ferdinand's involvement in the war was apparent from the start, Granada's leadership was divided and never able to present a united front.[87] It still took ten years to conquer Granada, however, culminating in 1492.
The Spanish monarchs recruited soldiers from many European countries and improved their artillery with the latest and best cannon.
During the war, Isabella noted the abilities and energy of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba and made him one of the two commissioners for the negotiations. Under her patronage, De Córdoba went on to an extraordinary military career that revolutionized the organization and tactics of the emerging Spanish military, changing the nature of warfare and altering the European balance of power.
Columbus and Portuguese relations
Just three months after entering Granada, Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor Christopher Columbus on an expedition to reach the East Indies by sailing west (for a distance of 2,000 miles, according to Columbus).[91] The crown agreed to pay a sum of money as a concession from monarch to subject.[92]
Columbus's expedition departed on 3 August 1492, and arrived in the New World on 12 October.[92] He returned the next year and presented his findings to the monarchs, bringing natives and gold under a hero's welcome. Although Columbus was sponsored by the Castilian queen, treasury accounts show no royal payments to him until 1493, after his first voyage was complete.[93] Spain then entered a Golden Age of exploration and colonization—the period of the Spanish Empire. In 1494, by the Treaty of Tordesillas, Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to divide the Earth, outside of Europe, with King John II of Portugal. The Portuguese did not recognize that South America belonged to the Spanish because it was in Portugal's sphere of influence, and King John II threatened to send an army to claim the land for the Portuguese.
Position on slavery
Isabella was not in favor of enslaving the American natives. She established the royal position on how the indigenous people should be treated by following the recent policies implemented in the Canary Islands (which had a small number of native inhabitants), which stated that all peoples were subjects of the Crown of Castile, and could not be enslaved in most situations. She was annoyed by the enslavement of the natives by Columbus, and established a royal position on how the indigenous shall be treated.[94] There were some circumstances in which a person could be enslaved, including being a prisoner of war, or for practising cannibalism or sodomy.[95]
After an episode in which Columbus captured 1,200 men,
To prevent her efforts from being reversed in the future, Isabella instructed her descendants in her
Expulsion of the Jews
With the institution of the Roman Catholic Inquisition in Spain, and with the
Later years
Isabella was given the title of
Isabella and her husband had created
However, Isabella's plans for her eldest two children did not work out. Her only son, John of Asturias, died shortly after his marriage. Her daughter, Isabella of Aragon, died during the birth of her son, Miguel da Paz, who died shortly after, at the age of two. Queen Isabella I's crowns passed to her third child, Joanna, and her son-in-law, Philip I.[106]
Isabella did, however, make successful dynastic matches for her two youngest daughters. The death of Isabella of Aragon created a necessity for Manuel I of Portugal to remarry, and Isabella's third daughter,
Death
Isabella officially withdrew from governmental affairs on 14 September 1504 and she died that same year on 26 November at the Medina del Campo Royal Palace. She had already been in decline since the deaths of her son Prince John of Asturias in 1497, her mother Isabella of Portugal in 1496, and her daughter Princess Isabella of Asturias in 1498.[107] She is entombed in Granada in the Capilla Real (built by her grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor), alongside her husband Ferdinand, her daughter Joanna, and other relatives.[6] She requested that the body of her daughter Isabella be moved to rest by her side in Granada, but this was never done. The museum next to the Capilla Real holds her crown and sceptre.
Appearance and personality
Isabella was short but of strong stocky build, of a very fair complexion, and had a
Isabella maintained an austere, temperate lifestyle, and her religious spirit influenced her the most in life. In spite of her hostility towards the Muslims in Andalusia, Isabella developed a taste for Moorish decor and style.
Isabella's contemporaries described her as follows:
- Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés: "To see her speak was divine."[108][109]
- Andrés Bernáldez : She was "very powerful, very prudent, wise, very honest, chaste, devout, discreet, truthful, clear, without deceit. Who could count the excellences of this very Catholic and happy Queen, always very worthy of praises."[110][111]
- Hernando del Pulgar: "She was very inclined to justice, so much so that she was reputed to follow more the path of rigor than that of mercy, and did so to remedy the great corruption of crimes that she found in the kingdom when she succeeded to the throne."[112]
- Lucio Marineo Sículo : "[The royal knight Álvaro Yáñez de Lugo] was condemned to be beheaded, although he offered forty thousand ducados for the war against the Moors to the court so that these monies spare his life. This matter was discussed with the queen, and there were some who told her to pardon him, since these funds for the war were better than the death of that man, and her highness should take them. But the queen, preferring justice to cash, very prudently refused them; and although she could have confiscated all his goods, which were many, she did not take any of them to avoid any note of greed, or that it be thought that she had not wished to pardon him in order to have his goods; instead, she gave them all to the children of the aforesaid knight."[113]
- Ferdinand, in his testament, declared that "she was exemplary in all acts of virtue and of fear of God."
- Fray Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, her confessor and the Grand Inquisitor, praised "her purity of heart, her big heart and the grandness of her soul".
Family
Isabella and Ferdinand had seven children, five of whom survived to adulthood:[114]
- Afonso, Prince of Portugal, no issue.[116] Married, secondly, to Manuel I of Portugal, had Miguel da Paz, who died before his second birthday.
- A son, miscarried on 31 May 1475 in Cebreros
- Archduchess Margaret of Austria, no surviving issue.[117]
- Philip the Handsome, had issue.[118]
- Maria (1482–1517),[119] married Manuel I of Portugal, her sister's widower, had issue.
- Stillborn twin of Maria.[120] Born on 1 July 1482 at dawn, sources conflict on gender.
Cause of beatification and canonization
In 1958, José García Goldaraz, the
In 1970, that Commission determined that "A Canonical process for the canonization of Isabella the Catholic could be undertaken with a sense of security since there was not found one single act, public or private, of Queen Isabella that was not inspired by Christian and evangelical criteria; moreover there was a 'reputation of sanctity' uninterrupted for five centuries and as the investigation was progressing, it was more accentuated."
In 1972, the Process of Valladolid was officially submitted to the
Some authors have claimed that Isabella's reputation for sanctity derives in large measure from an image carefully shaped and disseminated by the queen herself.[124]
Arms
As
-
Coat of arms as Princess of Asturias
(1468–1474) -
Coat of arms as queen
(1474–1492) -
Coat of arms as queen
(1492–1504) -
Coat of arms as queen with Castilian royal supporters (1492–1504)
-
Coat of arms of Isabella I of Castile depicted in the manuscript from 1495 Breviary of Isabella the Catholic
Legacy
Outside of Europe, Isabella is most remembered for enabling Christopher Columbus's voyage to the New World, which ushered in an era of great wealth for Spain and Europe. Her reign saw the establishment of the Spanish Empire, which in turn ultimately led to creation of most of the nations that occupy Americas today.
Within Europe, Isabella and her husband somewhat more notorious for completing the Reconquista, driving out the most significant Muslim influence in Western Europe and firmly establishing Spain and the Iberian peninsula as staunchly Catholic. Her reign also saw the dawn of the infamous Spanish Inquisition.[6]
Commemoration
The Spanish crown created the Order of Isabella the Catholic in 1815 in honor of the queen.
Isabella was the first woman to be featured on US postage stamps,[129] namely on three stamps of the Columbian Issue, also in celebration of Columbus. She appears in the 'Columbus soliciting aid of Isabella', 5-cent issue, and on the Spanish court scene replicated on the 15-cent Columbian, and on the $4 issue, in full portrait, side by side with Columbus.
The $4 stamp is the only stamp of that denomination ever issued and one which collectors prize not only for its rarity (only 30,000 were printed) but its beauty, an exquisite carmine with some copies having a crimson hue. Mint specimens of this commemorative have been sold for more than $20,000.[130]
Isabella was also the first-named woman to appear on a United States coin, the 1893 commemorative Isabella quarter, celebrating the 400th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage.
Ancestry
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See also
- Order of succession
- Philip V of Spain – Monarch who implemented a semi-Salic law in the country
- Ferdinand VII of Spain – Monarch who repealed Philip's semi-Salic law, with the issuing of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830
- Joanna the Mad
Explanatory notes
- ^ In the papal bull Si convenit of 1496, Ferdinand II and Isabella I were named "King and Queen Catholics of the Spains (Rey y Reina Católicos de las Españas)".
- ^ Philippa of Lancaster was the daughter of John of Gaunt by his first wife, Blanche of Lancaster,[136] making her half-sister of Isabella I of Castille's paternal grandmother, Catherine of Lancaster, who was daughter of the same John of Gaunt but by his second wife, Constance of Castile.
References
- ISBN 9780465096794.
- ^ "To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart". History Magazine. 28 March 2019. Archived from the original on 1 October 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ^ Watson, Fiona Flores (26 July 2013). "History – The Catholic Monarchs". Andalucia.com. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ^ "Isabella I of Castile (Queen of Castile)". On This Day. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ^ Highfield, J.R.L. "Isabella I | Biography, Reign, & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Palos, Joan-Lluís (28 March 2019). "To seize power in Spain, Queen Isabella had to play it smart: Bold, strategic, and steady, Isabella of Castile navigated an unlikely rise to the throne and ushered in a golden age for Spain". National Geographic History Magazine. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
- ^ Guardiola-Griffiths, Cristina. (2018). Isabel I, Queen of Castile. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0395.xml/ Archived 29 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Weissberger, Barbara, "Queen Isabel I of Castile Power, Patronage, Persona." Tamesis, Woodbridge, 2008, pp. 20–21
- ^ a b Prescott, William. History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic. J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, p. 28
- ^ a b Prescott, William. History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic. J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, p. 83
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 52
- ^ Remer, Ashley E. (10 March 2018). "Isabella of Castile". Girl Museum. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
- ^ Prescott, William. History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic. J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, pp. 85–87
- ^ Prescott, William. History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic. J.B Lippincott & Co., 1860, pp. 93–94
- ^ a b c Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 68
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 35
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 36–39
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 39–40
- ^ a b c Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 5
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 53
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 62–63
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 9
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 70–71
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 72
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 10, 13–14
- ^ a b Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 78
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 11, 13
- ^ Gerli, p. 219
- ^ "Henry IV | king of Castile". Britannica. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 93
- ^ Plunkett, p. 96
- ^ Plunkett, p. 98
- ^ ↓ Spanish historian Ana Carrasco Manchado: "...The battle [of Toro] was fierce and uncertain, and because of that both sides attributed themselves the victory. John, the son of Afonso of Portugal, sent letters to the Portuguese cities declaring victory. And Ferdinand of Aragon did the same. Both wanted to take advantage of the victory's propaganda." In Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad: propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482), 2006, pp. 195, 196.
- ^ a b ↓ Spanish historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro: "...For those who ignore the background of these circumstances it will certainly seem strange that while the Catholic Monarchs raised a temple in Toledo in honour of the victory that God granted them on that occasion, the same fact [the Battle of Toro] was festively celebrated with solemn processions on its anniversary in Portugal" in La batalla de Toro (1476). Datos y documentos para su monografía histórica, in Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, tome 38, Madrid, 1901,p. 250.
- ^ ↓ Manchado, Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad: propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482), 2006, p. 199 (foot note nr.141).
- ^ ↓ Pulgar, Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón, chapter XLV.
- ^ ↓ Garcia de Resende- Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II, chapter XIII.
- ^ ↓ chronicler Hernando del Pulgar (Castilian): "...promptly, those 6 Castilian captains, which we already told were at the right side of the royal battle, and were invested by the prince of Portugal and the bishop of Évora, turned their backs and put themselves on the run." in Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón, chapter XLV.
- ^ ↓ chronicler Garcia de Resende (Portuguese): "... And being the battles of both sides ordered that way and prepared to attack by nearly sunshine, the King ordered the prince to attack the enemy with his and God's blessing, which he obeyed (...). (...) and after the sound of the trumpets and screaming all for S. George invested so bravely the enemy battles, and in spite of their enormous size, they could not stand the hard fight and were rapidly beaten and put on the run with great losses." In Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II, chapter XIII.
- ^ ↓ chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian): "(...) the [Castilian] horsemen (...) moved forward(...).They were received by prince D. John... which charge... they couldn't stand but instead were defeated and ran away " in Historia General de España, tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, pp. 299–300.
- ^ ↓ chronicler Damião de Góis (Portuguese): "(...) these Castilians who were on the right of the Castilian Royal battle, received [the charge of] the Prince's men as brave knights invoking Santiago but they couldn't resist them and began to flee, and [so] our men killed and arrested many of them, and among those who escaped some took refuge (...) in their Royal battle that was on left of these six [Castilian] divisions. " in Chronica do Principe D. Joam, chapter LXXVIII.
- ^ ↓ chronicler Juan de Mariana (Castilian): "...the enemy led by prince D. John of Portugal, who without suffering defeat, stood on a hill with his forces in good order until very late (...). Thus, both forces [Castilian and Portuguese] remained face to face for some hours; and the Portuguese kept their position during more time (...)" in Historia General de España, tome V, book XXIV, chapter X, pp. 299–300.
- ^ ↓ chronicler Rui de Pina (Portuguese): "And being the two enemy battles face to face, the Castilian battle was deeply agitated and showing clear signs of defeat if attacked as it was without King and dubious of the outcome.(...) And without discipline and with great disorder they went to Zamora. So being the Prince alone on the field without suffering defeat but inflicting it on the adversary he became heir and master of his own victory" in Chronica de El- rei D.Affonso V... 3rd book, chapter CXCI.
- ^ ↓ French historian Jean Dumont in La "imcomparable" Isabel la Catolica/ The incomparable Isabel the Catholic, Encuentro Ediciones, printed by Rogar-Fuenlabrada, Madrid, 1993 (Spanish edition), p. 49: "...But in the left [Portuguese] Wing, in front of the Asturians and Galician, the reinforcement army of the Prince heir of Portugal, well provided with artillery, could leave the battlefield with its head high. The battle resulted this way, inconclusive. But its global result stays after that decided by the withdrawal of the Portuguese King, the surrender... of the Zamora's fortress on 19 March, and the multiple adhesions of the nobles to the young princes."
- ^ ↓ French historian Joseph-Louis Desormeaux: "... The result of the battle was very uncertain; Ferdinand defeated the enemy's right wing led by Afonso, but the Prince had the same advantage over the Castilians." In Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire de l'Éspagne, Duchesne, Paris, 1758, 3rd Tome, p. 25.
- ^ ↓ A. Ballesteros Beretta: "His moment is the inconclusive Battle of Toro.(...) both sides attributed themselves the victory.... The letters written by the King [Ferdinand] to the main cities... are a model of skill. (...) what a powerful description of the battle! The nebulous transforms into light, the doubtful acquires the profile of a certain triumph. The politic [Ferdinand] achieved the fruits of a discussed victory." In Fernando el Católico, el mejor rey de España, Ejército revue, nr 16, p. 56, May 1941.
- ^ ↓ Vicente Álvarez Palenzuela- La guerra civil Castellana y el enfrentamiento con Portugal (1475–1479): "That is the battle of Toro. The Portuguese army had not been exactly defeated, however, the sensation was that D. Juana's cause had completely sunk. It made sense that for the Castilians Toro was considered as the divine retribution, the compensation desired by God to compensate the terrible disaster of Aljubarrota, still alive in the Castilian memory".
- ^ ↓ Spanish academic Rafael Dominguez Casas: "...San Juan de los Reyes resulted from the royal will to build a monastery to commemorate the victory in a battle with an uncertain outcome but decisive, the one fought in Toro in 1476, which consolidated the union of the two most important Peninsular Kingdoms." In San Juan de los reyes: espacio funerário y aposento régio in Boletín del Seminário de Estúdios de Arte y Arqueologia, number 56, p. 364, 1990.
- ^ ↓ Justo L. González- Historia del Cristianismo Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Editorial Unilit, Miami, 1994, Tome 2, Parte II (La era de los conquistadores), p. 68.
- ^ ↓ Historian Marvin Lunenfeld: "In 1476, immediately after the indecisive battle of Peleagonzalo [near Toro], Ferdinand and Isabella hailed the result as a great victory and called a cortes at Madrigal. The newly created prestige was used to gain municipal support from their allies (...)" in The council of the Santa Hermandad: a study of the pacification forces of Ferdinand and Isabella, University of Miami Press, 1970, p. 27.
- J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1860, pp. 184–185
- ^ a b Battle of Guinea: ↓ Alonso de Palencia, Década IV, Book XXXIII, Chapter V ("Disaster among those sent to the mines of gold [Guinea]. Charges against the King..."), pp. 91–94. This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. The Perfect Prince sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ("quinto") to the Portuguese crown when they returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission of Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbours. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.
- ^ ↓ Historian Malyn Newitt: "However, in 1478 the Portuguese surprised thirty-five Castilian ships returning from Mina [Guinea] and seized them and all their gold. Another...Castilian voyage to Mina, that of Eustache de la Fosse, was intercepted ... in 1480. (...) All things considered, it is not surprising that the Portuguese emerged victorious from this first maritime colonial war. They were far better organised than the Castilians, were able to raise money for the preparation and supply of their fleets, and had clear central direction from ... [Prince] John." In A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400–1668, New York: Routledge2005, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 109–110
- ^ a b ↓ Bailey W. Diffie and George D. Winius "In a war in which the Castilians were victorious on land and the Portuguese at sea, ..." in Foundations of the Portuguese empire 1415–1580, volume I, University of Minnesota Press, 1985, p. 152.
- ^ : ↓ Alonso de Palencia, Decada IV, Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX ("preparation of 2 fleets [to Guinea and to Canary, respectively] so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies [the Portuguese]...").
- ^ ↓ Alonso de Palencia, Decada IV, book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary – capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians – and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from Canary waters. This victory allowed Prince John to use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.
- ^ ↓ Pina, Chronica de El-Rei D. Affonso V, 3rd book, chapter CXCIV (Editorial error: Chapter CXCIV erroneously appears as Chapter CLXIV.Reports the end of the siege of Ceuta by the arrival of the fleet with Afonso V).
- ^ ↓ Quesada, Portugueses en la frontera de Granada, 2000, p. 98. In 1476 Ceuta was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by the Duke of Medina Sidónia. The Castilians conquered the city from the Portuguese who took refuge in the inner fortress, but a Portuguese fleet arrived "in extremis" and regained the city. A Ceuta dominated by the Castilians would certainly have forced the right to conquer Fez (Morocco) to be shared between Portugal and Castile instead of the monopoly the Portuguese acquired.
- ^ a b ↓ Mendonça, 2007, pp. 101–103.
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 38
- ^ ↓ Mendonça, 2007, p. 53.
- ^ ↓ António Rumeu de Armas- book description, MAPFRE, Madrid, 1992, page 88.
- ^ a b ↓ Mª Monserrat León Guerrero in El segundo viaje colombino, University of Valladolid, 2000, chapter 2, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 121
- ^ Boruchoff, David A. "Historiography with License: Isabel, the Catholic Monarch, and the Kingdom of God." Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 242–247.
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 125
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 42
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 48–49
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, pp. 125–126
- ^ Prescott, William. History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Catholic. J.B Lippincott & C., 1860, p. 186
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 123
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 133
- ^ a b Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 150
- The Knickerbocker Press, pp. 152–155
- ^ Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 28
- ^ Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 29
- Pearson Education Limited, pp. 29–32
- ^ Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 30
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 42–47
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabella of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 142
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, 1915, p. 143
- ^ Edwards, John. (2000) The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc., p. 49
- ^ Plunkett, Ierne. (1915) Isabel of Castile. The Knickerbocker Press, p. 146
- ^ Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 48
- ^ Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, pp. 48–49
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 104–106
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 111
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 112–130
- ^ Liss, Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 316
- ^ a b Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 120
- ^ Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella. Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p. 119
- ^ F. Weissberger, Barbara Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona, Tamesis Books, 2008, p. 27, accessed 9 July 2012
- ISBN 978-1-4000-6281-2.
- ^ "The Lost Fort of Columbus". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- ^ "Así batalló Isabel la Católica por que los indios fueran tratados "muy bien y con cariño"". 17 June 2020.
- ^ "Testamento de Isabel la Católica - Wikisource". es.wikisource.org (in Spanish). Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ^ http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000022770 page 5 line 20, section "ITEM por cuanto al tiempo que nos fueron concedidas por la Santa Sede Apostólica las yslas y Tierra Firme del Mar Oçéano descubiertas y por descubrir, nuestra principal intención fue al tiempo que lo suplicamos al papa sexto Alejandro, de buena memoria, que nos hizo la dicha concesión, de procurar e ynduçir y traer los pueblos dellas y los convertir a la nuestra Santa Fe Católica y enviar a las dichas islas y Tierra Firme prelados, religiosos y clérigos y otras personas doctas y temerosas de Dios para instruir a los vecinos y moradores della en la Fe Católica, y los enseñar y dotar de buenas costunbres y poner en ellos la diligencia debida, según más largamente en las letras de la dicha concesión se contiene; por ende, suplico al Rey, mi señor, muy afectuosamente y encargo y mando, a la dicha Princesa, mi hija, y al dicho Príncipe, su marido, que así lo hagan y cunplan y que esto sea su principal fin; y que en ello pongan mucha diligencia y no consientan ni den lugar que los indios vecinos y moradores de las dichas Yndias y Tierra Firme, ganadas y por ganar, reciban agravio alguno en sus personas ni bienes, mas manden que sean bien y justamente tratados; y si algun agravio an recebido, lo remedien y provean, por manera que no escedan cosa alguna lo que por las letras apostólicas de la dicha concesión nos es injungido y mandado."
- ^ "Lo que la Leyenda Negra contra España no cuenta de las Leyes de Indias". www.abc.es (in Spanish). 2 March 2013. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ^ a b Liss, Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 298
- ^ Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. (1997) Yale University Press, pp. 29–31.
- ^ Liss, Peggy. "Isabel the Queen," Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 308
- ^ Hunt, Jocelyn. Spain 1474–1598. Routledge, 2001, p. 20
- ISBN 9780199731985.
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, pp. 241–260
- ^ Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520. Blackwell Publishers Inc, 2000, p. 282
- ^ Bakersfield, Katherine. "Katherine's Reviews > Isabel: Jewel of Castilla, Spain, 1466". Good Reads. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
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- ^ "Isabella I of Castille". Book of Days Tales. 22 April 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-60949-760-6.
- ^ Pulgar, Crónica de los Reyes Católicos, trans. in David A. Boruchoff, "Historiography with License: Isabel, the Catholic Monarch, and the Kingdom of God," Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 242.
- ^ Marineo Sículo, De las cosas memorables de España (1539), trans. in David A. Boruchoff, "Instructions for Sainthood and Other Feminine Wiles in the Historiography of Isabel I," Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 12.
- ^ "Biography of Isabella I, Queen of Spain". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
- S2CID 245078033, retrieved 25 February 2022
- ISSN 1980-5160.
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- ^ Peggy K. Liss, Isabel the Queen: Life and Times, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 220.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4891. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
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- ^ Boruchoff, David A. "Instructions for Sainthood and Other Feminine Wiles in the Historiography of Isabel I." Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 1–23.
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- ISBN 84-259-1074-9
- ^ "Image of the Isabella's coat of arms with lions as supporters, facade of the St. Paul Church inValladolid (Spain) Artehistoria". /www.artehistoria.jcyl.es. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ^ Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps
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- ^ a b c Henry III, King of Castille at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ a b Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 45. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 167.
- ^ ISBN 9780415939188. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
- ^ Ferdinand I, King of Aragon at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ a b Leese, Thelma Anna, Blood royal: issue of the kings and queens of medieval England, 1066–1399, (Heritage Books Inc., 1996), 222.
- ^ Armitage-Smith, Sydney (1905). John of Gaunt: King of Castile and Leon, Duke of Aquitaine and Lancaster, Earl of Derby, Lincoln, and Leicester, Seneschal of England. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 77. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Further reading
- Boruchoff, David A. Isabel la Católica, Queen of Castile: Critical Essays. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
- Diffie, Bailey W. and Winius, George D. (1977) Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580, Volume 1, University of Minnesota Press.
- Downey, Kirsten "Isabella, The Warrior Queen,". New York, Anchor Books, Penguin, 2014.
- Gerli, Edmondo Michael (1992) Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis.
- Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs, 1474–1520. Oxford: Blackwell 2000. ISBN 0-631-16165-1
- Hillgarth, J.N. The Spanish Kingdoms, 1250–1516. Castilian hegemony. Oxford 1978.
- Hunt, Joceyln (2001) Spain, 1474–1598. Routledge, 1st Ed.
- Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: a historical revision (Yale University Press, 2014)
- Liss, Peggy K. (1992) Isabel the Queen. New York: Oxford University Press;
- Lunenfeld, Marvin (1970) "The council of the Santa Hermandad: a study of the pacification forces of Ferdinand and Isabella", University of Miami Press. ISBN 978-0870241437
- Miller, Townsend Miller (1963) The Castles and the Crown: Spain 1451–1555. New York: Coward-McCann
- Prescott, William H. (1838). History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic.
- Roth, Norman (1995) Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press)
- Stuart, Nancy Rubin. Isabella of Castile: the First Renaissance Queen (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991)
- Tremlett, Giles. Isabella of Castile. Europe's First Great Queen (London: Bloomsbury, 2017)
- Tremlett, Giles. Catherine of Aragon. Henry's Spanish Queen (London: Faber and Faber, 2010)
- Weissberger, Barbara F. Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona (2008)
- Weissberger, Barbara F. Isabel Rules: Constructing Queenship, Wielding Power (2003)
In Spanish and Portuguese
Books
- Armas, Antonio Rumeu (1992) El tratado de Tordesillas. Madrid: Colecciones MAPFRE 1492, book description.
- Azcona, Tarsicio de. Isabel la Católica. Estudio crítico de su vida y su reinado. Madrid 1964.
- Desormeaux, Joseph-Louis Ripault (1758) Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire de l'Éspagne, Duchesne, Paris, 3rd Tome.
- Dumont, Jean (1993) La "imcomparable" Isabel la Catolica (The "incomparable" Isabella, the Catholic), Madrid: Encuentro Editiones, printed by Rogar-Fuenlabrada (Spanish edition).
- González, Justo L. (1994) Historia del Cristianismo, Miami: Editorial Unilit, Tome 2. ISBN 1560634766
- Guerrero, Mª Monserrat León (2002) El segundo viaje colombino, Alicante: Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. ISBN 8468812080
- Ladero Quesada, Miguel Angel. La España de los Reyes Católicos, Madrid 1999.
- Manchado, Ana Isabel Carrasco (2006) Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimidad. Propaganda y representación en el conflicto sucesorio (1474–1482), Madrid: Sílex ediciones.
- Mendonça, Manuela (2007) O Sonho da União Ibérica – guerra Luso-Castelhana 1475/1479, Lisboa: Quidnovi, book description Archived 21 March 2012 at the ISBN 978-9728998882
- Pereira, Isabel Violante (2001) De Mendo da Guarda a D. Manuel I. Lisboa: Livros Horizonte
- Perez, Joseph. Isabel y Fernando. Los Reyes Católicos. Madrid 1988.
- Suárez Fernández, L. and M. Fernández (1969) La España de los reyes Católicos (1474–1516).
Articles
- Beretta, Antonio Ballesteros (1941) Fernando el Católico, in Ejército revue, Ministerio del Ejercito, Madrid, nr 16, pp. 54–66, May 1941.
- Casas, Rafael Dominguez (1990) San Juan de los reyes: espacio funerário y aposento régio – in Boletín del Seminário de Estúdios de Arte y Arqueologia, number 56, pp. 364–383, University of Valladolid.
- Duro, Cesáreo Fernández (1901) La batalla de Toro (1476). Datos y documentos para su monografía histórica, Madrid: Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, tomo 38.
- Palenzuela,Vicente Ángel Alvarez (2006) La guerra civil castellana y el enfrentamiento con Portugal (1475–1479), Universidad de Alicante, Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
- Quesada, Miguel-Ángel Ladero (2000) Portugueses en la frontera de Granada, Revista En la España medieval, Universidad Complutense, nr. 23, pp. 67–100.
- Serrano, António Macia- San Juan de los Reyes y la batalla de Toro, revista Toletum, segunda época, 1979 (9), pp. 55–70 Archived 29 January 2016 at the ISSN: 0210-6310
Chronicles
- Góis, Damião de (1724) Chronica do Principe D. Joam, edited by Lisboa occidental at the officina da Música, Lisboa (Biblioteca Nacional Digital).
- Mariana, Juan de (1839) Historia General de España, tome V Barcelona: printing press of D. Francisco Oliva.
- Palencia, Alfonso de – Gesta Hispaniensia ex annalibus suorum diebus colligentis, Década III and IV (the three first Décadas were edited as Cronica del rey Enrique IV by Antonio Paz y Meliá in 1904 and the fourth as Cuarta Década by José Lopes de Toro in 1970).
- Pina, Ruy de (1902) Chronica de El- rei D. Affonso V, Project Gutenberg Ebook, Biblioteca de Clássicos Portugueses, 3rd book, Lisboa.
- Pulgar, Hernando del (1780) Crónica de los Señores Reyes Católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragón, (Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes), Valencia: edited by Benito Monfort.
- Resende, Garcia de – Vida e feitos d'El Rei D.João II electronic version, wikisource.
External links
- Isabella I in the Catholic Encyclopedia
- Medieval Sourcebook: Columbus' letter to King and Queen of Spain, 1494
- Music at Isabella's court
- University of Hull: Genealogy information on Isabella I Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- El obispo judío que bloquea a la "santa". A report in Spanish about the beatification in El Mundo
- Isabella I of Castile – Facts (Video) Archived 3 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine | Check123 – Video Encyclopedia