Stroke
Stroke | |
---|---|
Other names | Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), cerebrovascular insult (CVI), brain attack |
Low blood sugar[9] | |
Treatment | Based on the type[2] |
Prognosis | Average life expectancy 1 year[2] |
Frequency | 42.4 million (2015)[11] |
Deaths | 6.3 million (2015)[12] |
Stroke (also known as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA) or brain attack) is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain causes cell death.[5] There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to bleeding.[5] Both cause parts of the brain to stop functioning properly.[5]
Signs and symptoms of stroke may include an
The biggest
Prevention includes decreasing risk factors,
In 2023, 15 million people worldwide had a stroke.
Classification
Stroke can be classified into two major categories: ischemic and hemorrhagic.[19] Ischemic stroke is caused by interruption of the blood supply to the brain, while hemorrhagic stroke results from the rupture of a blood vessel or an abnormal vascular structure. About 87% of stroke is ischemic, with the rest being hemorrhagic. Bleeding can develop inside areas of ischemia, a condition known as "hemorrhagic transformation." It is unknown how many cases of hemorrhagic stroke actually start as ischemic stroke.[2]
Definition
In the 1970s the World Health Organization defined "stroke" as a "neurological deficit of cerebrovascular cause that persists beyond 24 hours or is interrupted by death within 24 hours",[20] although the word "stroke" is centuries old. This definition was supposed to reflect the reversibility of tissue damage and was devised for the purpose, with the time frame of 24 hours being chosen arbitrarily. The 24-hour limit divides stroke from transient ischemic attack, which is a related syndrome of stroke symptoms that resolve completely within 24 hours.[2] With the availability of treatments that can reduce stroke severity when given early, many now prefer alternative terminology, such as "brain attack" and "acute ischemic cerebrovascular syndrome" (modeled after heart attack and acute coronary syndrome, respectively), to reflect the urgency of stroke symptoms and the need to act swiftly.[21]
Ischemic
During ischemic stroke, blood supply to part of the brain is decreased, leading to dysfunction of the brain tissue in that area. There are four reasons why this might happen:
- Thrombosis (obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot forming locally)
- Embolism (obstruction due to an embolus from elsewhere in the body),[2]
- Systemic
- Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis.[23]
Stroke without an obvious explanation is termed cryptogenic stroke (idiopathic); this constitutes 30–40% of all cases of ischemic stroke.[2][24]
There are various classification systems for acute ischemic stroke. The Oxford Community Stroke Project classification (OCSP, also known as the Bamford or Oxford classification) relies primarily on the initial symptoms; based on the extent of the symptoms, the stroke episode is classified as
Hemorrhagic
There are two main types of hemorrhagic stroke:[29][30]
- Intracerebral hemorrhage, which is bleeding within the brain itself (when an artery in the brain bursts, flooding the surrounding tissue with blood), due to either intraparenchymal hemorrhage (bleeding within the brain tissue) or intraventricular hemorrhage (bleeding within the brain's ventricular system).
- Subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is bleeding that occurs outside of the brain tissue but still within the skull, and precisely between the arachnoid mater and pia mater (the delicate innermost layer of the three layers of the meninges that surround the brain).
The above two main types of hemorrhagic stroke are also two different forms of intracranial hemorrhage, which is the accumulation of blood anywhere within the cranial vault; but the other forms of intracranial hemorrhage, such as epidural hematoma (bleeding between the skull and the dura mater, which is the thick outermost layer of the meninges that surround the brain) and subdural hematoma (bleeding in the subdural space), are not considered "hemorrhagic stroke".[31]
Hemorrhagic stroke may occur on the background of alterations to the blood vessels in the brain, such as cerebral amyloid angiopathy, cerebral arteriovenous malformation and an intracranial aneurysm, which can cause intraparenchymal or subarachnoid hemorrhage.[32]
In addition to neurological impairment, hemorrhagic stroke usually causes specific symptoms (for instance, subarachnoid hemorrhage classically causes a severe headache known as a thunderclap headache) or reveal evidence of a previous head injury.
Signs and symptoms
Stroke symptoms typically start suddenly, over seconds to minutes, and in most cases do not progress further. The symptoms depend on the area of the brain affected. The more extensive the area of the brain affected, the more functions that are likely to be lost. Some forms of stroke can cause additional symptoms. For example, in intracranial hemorrhage, the affected area may compress other structures. Most forms of stroke are not associated with a headache, apart from subarachnoid hemorrhage and cerebral venous thrombosis and occasionally intracerebral hemorrhage.[32]
Early recognition
Various systems have been proposed to increase recognition of stroke. Different findings are able to predict the presence or absence of stroke to different degrees. Sudden-onset face weakness, arm drift (i.e., if a person, when asked to raise both arms, involuntarily lets one arm drift downward) and abnormal speech are the findings most likely to lead to the correct identification of a case of stroke, increasing the likelihood by 5.5 when at least one of these is present. Similarly, when all three of these are absent, the likelihood of stroke is decreased (– likelihood ratio of 0.39).[33] While these findings are not perfect for diagnosing stroke, the fact that they can be evaluated relatively rapidly and easily make them very valuable in the acute setting.
A mnemonic to remember the warning signs of stroke is
For people referred to the
Subtypes
If the area of the brain affected includes one of the three prominent central nervous system pathways—the spinothalamic tract, corticospinal tract, and the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway, symptoms may include:
- hemiplegia and muscle weakness of the face
- numbness
- reduction in sensory or vibratory sensation
- initial flaccidity (reduced muscle tone), replaced by spasticity (increased muscle tone), excessive reflexes, and obligatory synergies.[43]
In most cases, the symptoms affect only one side of the body (unilateral). Depending on the part of the brain affected, the defect in the brain is usually on the
- altered smell, taste, hearing, or vision (total or partial)
- drooping of eyelid (ptosis) and weakness of ocular muscles
- decreased reflexes: gag, swallow, pupil reactivity to light
- decreased sensation and muscle weakness of the face
- balance problems and nystagmus
- altered breathing and heart rate
- weakness in sternocleidomastoid muscle with inability to turn head to one side
- weakness in tongue (inability to stick out the tongue or move it from side to side)
If the cerebral cortex is involved, the central nervous system pathways can again be affected, but can also produce the following symptoms:
- typically involved)
- dysarthria (motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury)
- apraxia (altered voluntary movements)
- visual field defect
- memory deficits (involvement of temporal lobe)
- hemineglect (involvement of parietal lobe)
- disorganized thinking, confusion, hypersexualgestures (with involvement of frontal lobe)
- lack of insight of his or her, usually stroke-related, disability
If the cerebellum is involved, ataxia might be present and this includes:
- altered walking gait
- altered movement coordination
- vertigoand or disequilibrium
Associated symptoms
Loss of consciousness, headache, and vomiting usually occur more often in hemorrhagic stroke than in thrombosis because of the increased intracranial pressure from the leaking blood compressing the brain.
If symptoms are maximal at onset, the cause is more likely to be a subarachnoid hemorrhage or an embolic stroke.
Causes
Thrombotic stroke
In thrombotic stroke, a thrombus[44] (blood clot) usually forms around atherosclerotic plaques. Since blockage of the artery is gradual, onset of symptomatic thrombotic stroke is slower than that of hemorrhagic stroke. A thrombus itself (even if it does not completely block the blood vessel) can lead to an embolic stroke (see below) if the thrombus breaks off and travels in the bloodstream, at which point it is called an embolus. Two types of thrombosis can cause stroke:
- Large vessel disease involves the Takayasu arteritis, giant cell arteritis, vasculitis), noninflammatory vasculopathy, Moyamoya disease and fibromuscular dysplasia. Strokes caused by artery dissections are in the strictest sense not always caused by a 'defined disease state', such events can occur in very young people and can be caused by physical injury such as hyperextension of the neck area or often by other forms of trauma.[46]
- Small vessel disease involves the smaller arteries inside the brain: branches of the circle of Willis, middle cerebral artery, stem, and arteries arising from the distal vertebral and basilar artery.[47] Diseases that may form thrombi in the small vessels include (in descending incidence): lipohyalinosis (build-up of fatty hyaline matter in the blood vessel as a result of high blood pressure and aging) and fibrinoid degeneration (stroke involving these vessels is known as a lacunar stroke) and microatheroma (small atherosclerotic plaques).[48]
Anemia causes increase blood flow in the blood circulatory system. This causes the endothelial cells of the blood vessels to express adhesion factors which encourages the clotting of blood and formation of thrombus.
Embolic stroke
An embolic stroke refers to an
Because an embolus arises from elsewhere, local therapy solves the problem only temporarily. Thus, the source of the embolus must be identified. Because the embolic blockage is sudden in onset, symptoms are usually maximal at the start. Also, symptoms may be transient as the embolus is partially resorbed and moves to a different location or dissipates altogether.
Emboli most commonly arise from the heart (especially in atrial fibrillation) but may originate from elsewhere in the arterial tree. In paradoxical embolism, a deep vein thrombosis embolizes through an atrial or ventricular septal defect in the heart into the brain.[52]
Causes of stroke related to the heart can be distinguished between high and low-risk:[53]
- High risk: atrial fibrillation and coronary artery bypass graft(CABG) surgery.
- Low risk/potential: calcification of the annulus (ring) of the mitral valve, patent foramen ovale (PFO), atrial septal aneurysm, atrial septal aneurysm with patent foramen ovale, left ventricular aneurysm without thrombus, isolated left atrial "smoke" on echocardiography (no mitral stenosis or atrial fibrillation), complex atheroma in the ascending aorta or proximal arch.
Among those who have a complete blockage of one of the carotid arteries, the risk of stroke on that side is about one percent per year.[54]
A special form of embolic stroke is the embolic stroke of undetermined source (ESUS). This subset of cryptogenic stroke is defined as a non-lacunar brain infarct without proximal arterial stenosis or cardioembolic sources. About one out of six cases of ischemic stroke could be classified as ESUS.[55]
Cerebral hypoperfusion
Venous thrombosis
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis leads to stroke due to locally increased venous pressure, which exceeds the pressure generated by the arteries. Infarcts are more likely to undergo hemorrhagic transformation (leaking of blood into the damaged area) than other types of ischemic stroke.[23]
Intracerebral hemorrhage
It generally occurs in small arteries or arterioles and is commonly due to hypertension,
Other
Other causes may include spasm of an artery. This may occur due to cocaine.[57]
Silent stroke
Pathophysiology
Ischemic
This section needs more primary sources. (June 2022) |
Ischemic stroke occurs because of a loss of blood supply to part of the brain, initiating the
As oxygen or glucose becomes depleted in ischemic brain tissue, the production of
Ischemia also induces production of
Collateral flow
The brain can compensate inadequate blood flow in a single artery by the collateral system. This system relies on the efficient connection between the carotid and
The extent of damage depends on the duration and severity of the ischemia. If ischemia persists for more than 5 minutes with perfusion below 5% of normal, some neurons will die. However, if ischemia is mild, the damage will occur slowly and may take up to 6 hours to completely destroy the brain tissue. In case of severe ischemia lasting more than 15 to 30 minutes, all of the affected tissue will die, leading to infarction. The rate of damage is affected by temperature, with hyperthermia accelerating damage and hypothermia slowing it down and various other factors. Prompt restoration of blood flow to ischemic tissues can reduce or reverse injury, especially if the tissues are not yet irreversibly damaged. This is particularly important for the moderately ischemic areas (penumbras) surrounding areas of severe ischemia, which may still be salvageable due to collateral flow.[67][68][69]
Hemorrhagic
Hemorrhagic stroke is classified based on their underlying pathology. Some causes of hemorrhagic stroke are
Diagnosis
Stroke is diagnosed through several techniques: a neurological examination (such as the
Physical examination
A
Imaging
For diagnosing ischemic (blockage) stroke in the emergency setting:[73]
- CT scans (without contrast enhancements)
- sensitivity= 16% (less than 10% within first 3 hours of symptom onset)
- specificity= 96%
- MRI scan
- sensitivity= 83%
- specificity= 98%
For diagnosing hemorrhagic stroke in the emergency setting:
- CT scans (without contrast enhancements)
- sensitivity= 89%
- specificity= 100%
- MRI scan
- sensitivity= 81%
- specificity= 100%
For detecting chronic hemorrhages, an MRI scan is more sensitive.[74]
For the assessment of stable stroke, nuclear medicine scans such as
CT scans may not detect ischemic stroke, especially if it is small, of recent onset,
Underlying cause
When stroke has been diagnosed, various other studies may be performed to determine the underlying cause. With the current treatment and diagnosis options available, it is of particular importance to determine whether there is a peripheral source of emboli. Test selection may vary since the cause of stroke varies with age, comorbidity and the clinical presentation. The following are commonly used techniques:
- an carotid stenosis) or dissection of the precerebral arteries;
- an arrhythmiasand resultant clots in the heart which may spread to the brain vessels through the bloodstream);
- a abnormal heart rhythms;
- an angiogram of the cerebral vasculature (if a bleed is thought to have originated from an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation);
- blood tests to determine if homocystinuriamight be involved.
For hemorrhagic stroke, a CT or MRI scan with intravascular contrast may be able to identify abnormalities in the brain arteries (such as aneurysms) or other sources of bleeding, and structural MRI if this shows no cause. If this too does not identify an underlying reason for the bleeding, invasive cerebral angiography could be performed but this requires access to the bloodstream with an intravascular catheter and can cause further stroke as well as complications at the insertion site and this investigation is therefore reserved for specific situations.[79] If there are symptoms suggesting that the hemorrhage might have occurred as a result of venous thrombosis, CT or MRI venography can be used to examine the cerebral veins.[79]
Misdiagnosis
Among people with ischemic stroke, misdiagnosis occurs 2 to 26% of the time.[80] A "stroke chameleon" (SC) is stroke which is diagnosed as something else.[80][81]
People not having stroke may also be misdiagnosed with the condition. Giving thrombolytics (clot-busting) in such cases causes intracerebral bleeding 1 to 2% of the time, which is less than that of people with stroke. This unnecessary treatment adds to health care costs. Even so, the AHA/ASA guidelines state that starting intravenous tPA in possible mimics is preferred to delaying treatment for additional testing.[80]
Women, African-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, Asian and Pacific Islanders are more often misdiagnosed for a condition other than stroke when in fact having stroke. In addition, adults under 44 years of age are seven times more likely to have stroke missed than are adults over 75 years of age. This is especially the case for younger people with posterior circulation infarcts.[80] Some medical centers have used hyperacute MRI in experimental studies for people initially thought to have a low likelihood of stroke, and in some of these people, stroke has been found which were then treated with thrombolytic medication.[80]
Prevention
Given the disease burden of stroke,
Risk factors
The most important modifiable risk factors for stroke are high blood pressure and atrial fibrillation although the size of the effect is small; 833 people have to be treated for 1 year to prevent one stroke.
High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of stroke by about 26%.[103] There is a lack of high quality studies looking at promotional efforts to improve lifestyle factors.[104] Nonetheless, given the large body of circumstantial evidence, best medical management for stroke includes advice on diet, exercise, smoking and alcohol use.[105] Medication is the most common method of stroke prevention; carotid endarterectomy can be a useful surgical method of preventing stroke.
Blood pressure
Blood lipids
High cholesterol levels have been inconsistently associated with (ischemic) stroke.
Diabetes mellitus
Anticoagulant drugs
Oral anticoagulants such as
Those with
In primary prevention, however, antiplatelet drugs did not reduce the risk of ischemic stroke but increased the risk of major bleeding.[130][131] Further studies are needed to investigate a possible protective effect of aspirin against ischemic stroke in women.[132][133]
Surgery
Carotid endarterectomy or carotid angioplasty can be used to remove atherosclerotic narrowing of the carotid artery. There is evidence supporting this procedure in selected cases.[105] Endarterectomy for a significant stenosis has been shown to be useful in preventing further stroke in those who have already had the condition.[134] Carotid artery stenting has not been shown to be equally useful.[135][136] People are selected for surgery based on age, gender, degree of stenosis, time since symptoms and the person's preferences.[105] Surgery is most efficient when not delayed too long—the risk of recurrent stroke in a person who has a 50% or greater stenosis is up to 20% after 5 years, but endarterectomy reduces this risk to around 5%. The number of procedures needed to cure one person was 5 for early surgery (within two weeks after the initial stroke), but 125 if delayed longer than 12 weeks.[137][138]
Screening for carotid artery narrowing has not been shown to be a useful test in the general population.[139] Studies of surgical intervention for carotid artery stenosis without symptoms have shown only a small decrease in the risk of stroke.[140][141] To be beneficial, the complication rate of the surgery should be kept below 4%. Even then, for 100 surgeries, 5 people will benefit by avoiding stroke, 3 will develop stroke despite surgery, 3 will develop stroke or die due to the surgery itself, and 89 will remain stroke-free but would also have done so without intervention.[105]
Diet
Nutrition, specifically the
Women
A number of specific recommendations have been made for women including taking aspirin after the 11th week of pregnancy if there is a history of previous chronic high blood pressure and taking blood pressure medications during pregnancy if the blood pressure is greater than 150 mmHg systolic or greater than 100 mmHg diastolic. In those who have previously had
Previous stroke or TIA
Keeping blood pressure below 140/90 mmHg is recommended.[146] Anticoagulation can prevent recurrent ischemic stroke. Among people with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation, anticoagulation can reduce stroke by 60% while antiplatelet agents can reduce stroke by 20%.[147] However, a recent meta-analysis suggests harm from anticoagulation started early after an embolic stroke.[148][149] Stroke prevention treatment for atrial fibrillation is determined according to the CHA2DS2–VASc score. The most widely used anticoagulant to prevent thromboembolic stroke in people with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation is the oral agent warfarin while a number of newer agents including dabigatran are alternatives which do not require prothrombin time monitoring.[146]
Anticoagulants, when used following stroke, should not be stopped for dental procedures.[150]
If studies show carotid artery stenosis, and the person has a degree of residual function on the affected side, carotid endarterectomy (surgical removal of the stenosis) may decrease the risk of recurrence if performed rapidly after stroke.
Management
Stroke, whether ischemic or hemorrhagic, is an emergency that warrants immediate medical attention.[5][151] The specific treatment will depend on the type of stroke, the time elapsed since the onset of symptoms, and the underlying cause or presence of comorbidities.[151]
Ischemic stroke
Aspirin reduces the overall risk of recurrence by 13% with greater benefit early on.[152] Definitive therapy within the first few hours is aimed at removing the blockage by breaking the clot down (thrombolysis), or by removing it mechanically (thrombectomy). The philosophical premise underlying the importance of rapid stroke intervention was summed up as Time is Brain! in the early 1990s.[153] Years later, that same idea, that rapid cerebral blood flow restoration results in fewer brain cells dying, has been proved and quantified.[154]
Tight blood sugar control in the first few hours does not improve outcomes and may cause harm.[155] High blood pressure is also not typically lowered as this has not been found to be helpful.[156][157] Cerebrolysin, a mixture of pig brain-derived neurotrophic factors used widely to treat acute ischemic stroke in China, Eastern Europe, Russia, post-Soviet countries, and other Asian countries, does not improve outcomes or prevent death and may increase the risk of severe adverse events.[158] There is also no evidence that cerebrolysin‐like peptide mixtures which are extracted from cattle brain is helpful in treating acute ischemic stroke.[158]
Thrombolysis
Its use is endorsed by the
Endovascular treatment
Mechanical removal of the blood clot causing the ischemic stroke, called mechanical thrombectomy, is a potential treatment for occlusion of a large artery, such as the middle cerebral artery. In 2015, one review demonstrated the safety and efficacy of this procedure if performed within 12 hours of the onset of symptoms.[177][178] It did not change the risk of death, but reduced disability compared to the use of intravenous thrombolysis which is generally used in people evaluated for mechanical thrombectomy.[179][180] Certain cases may benefit from thrombectomy up to 24 hours after the onset of symptoms.[181]
Craniectomy
Stroke affecting large portions of the brain can cause significant brain swelling with secondary brain injury in surrounding tissue. This phenomenon is mainly encountered in stroke affecting brain tissue dependent upon the middle cerebral artery for blood supply and is also called "malignant cerebral infarction" because it carries a dismal prognosis. Relief of the pressure may be attempted with medication, but some require
Hemorrhagic stroke
People with intracerebral hemorrhage require supportive care, including blood pressure control if required. People are monitored for changes in the level of consciousness, and their blood sugar and oxygenation are kept at optimum levels. Anticoagulants and antithrombotics can make bleeding worse and are generally discontinued (and reversed if possible).[citation needed] A proportion may benefit from neurosurgical intervention to remove the blood and treat the underlying cause, but this depends on the location and the size of the hemorrhage as well as patient-related factors, and ongoing research is being conducted into the question as to which people with intracerebral hemorrhage may benefit.[184]
In subarachnoid hemorrhage, early treatment for underlying cerebral aneurysms may reduce the risk of further hemorrhages. Depending on the site of the aneurysm this may be by surgery that involves opening the skull or endovascularly (through the blood vessels).[185]
Stroke unit
Ideally, people who have had stroke are admitted to a "stroke unit", a ward or dedicated area in a hospital staffed by nurses and therapists with experience in stroke treatment. It has been shown that people admitted to stroke units have a higher chance of surviving than those admitted elsewhere in hospital, even if they are being cared for by doctors without experience in stroke.
Rehabilitation
Spatial neglect
The current body of evidence is uncertain on the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation for reducing the disabling effects of neglect and increasing independence remains unproven.[189] However, there is limited evidence that cognitive rehabilitation may have an immediate beneficial effect on tests of neglect.[189] Overall, no rehabilitation approach can be supported by evidence for spatial neglect.
Automobile driving
The current body of evidence is uncertain whether the use of rehabilitation can improve on-road driving skills following stroke.[190] There is limited evidence that training on a driving simulator will improve performance on recognizing road signs after training.[190] The findings are based on low-quality evidence as further research is needed involving large numbers of participants.
Yoga
Based on low quality evidence, it is currently uncertain whether yoga has a significant benefit for stroke rehabilitation on measures of quality of life, balance, strength, endurance, pain, and disability scores.[191] Yoga may reduce anxiety and could be included as part of patient-centred stroke rehabilitation.[191] Further research is needed assessing the benefits and safety of yoga in stroke rehabilitation.
Action observation physical therapy for upper limbs
Low-quality evidence suggests that action observation (a type of physiotherapy that is meant to improve neural plasticity through the mirror-neuronal system) may be of some benefit and has no significant adverse effects, however this benefit may not be clinically significant and further research is suggested.[192]
Cognitive rehabilitation for attention deficits
The current body of scientific evidence is uncertain on the effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation for attention deficits in patients following stroke.[193] While there may be an immediate effect after treatment on attention, the findings are based on low to moderate quality and small number of studies.[193] Further research is needed to assess whether the effect can be sustained in day-to-day tasks requiring attention.
Motor imagery for gait rehabilitation
The latest evidence supports the short-term benefits of motor imagery (MI) on walking speed in individuals who have had stroke, in comparison to other therapies.[194] MI does not improve motor function after stroke and does not seem to cause significant adverse events.[194] The findings are based on low-quality evidence as further research is needed to estimate the effect of MI on walking endurance and the dependence on personal assistance.
Physical and occupational therapy
Physical and occupational therapy have overlapping areas of expertise; however, physical therapy focuses on joint range of motion and strength by performing exercises and relearning functional tasks such as bed mobility, transferring, walking and other gross motor functions. Physiotherapists can also work with people who have had stroke to improve awareness and use of the
Treatment of spasticity related to stroke often involves early mobilizations, commonly performed by a physiotherapist, combined with elongation of spastic muscles and sustained stretching through various different positions.[43] Gaining initial improvement in range of motion is often achieved through rhythmic rotational patterns associated with the affected limb.[43] After full range has been achieved by the therapist, the limb should be positioned in the lengthened positions to prevent against further contractures, skin breakdown, and disuse of the limb with the use of splints or other tools to stabilize the joint.[43] Cold ice wraps or ice packs may briefly relieve spasticity by temporarily reducing neural firing rates.[43] Electrical stimulation to the antagonist muscles or vibrations has also been used with some success.[43] Physical therapy is sometimes suggested for people who experience sexual dysfunction following stroke.[198]
With the prevalence of vision problems increasing with age in stroke patients, the overall effect of interventions for age-related visual problems is currently uncertain. It is also not sure whether people with stroke respond differently from the general population when treating eye problems.[199] Further research in this area is needed as current body of evidence is very low quality.
Speech and language therapy
Speech and language therapy for aphasia following stroke improves functional communication, reading, writing and expressive language. Speech and language therapy that is higher intensity, higher dose or provided over a long duration of time leads to significantly better functional communication but people might be more likely to drop out of high intensity treatment (up to 15 hours per week).[203] A total of 20-50 hours of speech and language therapy is necessary for the best recovery. The most improvement happens when 2-5 hours of therapy is provided each week over 4-5 days. Recovery is further improved when besides the therapy people practice tasks at home.[204][205] Speech and language therapy is also effective if it is delivered online through video or by a family member who has been trained by a professional therapist.[204][205]
Recovery with therapy for aphasia is also dependent on the recency of stroke and the age of the person. Receiving therapy within a month after the stroke leads to the greatest improvements. 3 or 6 months after the stroke more therapy will be needed but symptoms can still be improved. People with aphasia who are younger than 55 years are the most likely to improve but people older than 75 years can still get better with therapy.[206][207]
People who have had stroke may have particular problems, such as dysphagia, which can cause swallowed material to pass into the lungs and cause aspiration pneumonia. The condition may improve with time, but in the interim, a nasogastric tube may be inserted, enabling liquid food to be given directly into the stomach. If swallowing is still deemed unsafe, then a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube is passed and this can remain indefinitely. Swallowing therapy has mixed results as of 2018.[208]
Devices
Often,
Physical fitness
Stroke can also reduce people's general fitness.[210] Reduced fitness can reduce capacity for rehabilitation as well as general health.[211] Physical exercises as part of a rehabilitation program following stroke appear safe.[210] Cardiorespiratory fitness training that involves walking in rehabilitation can improve speed, tolerance and independence during walking, and may improve balance.[210] There are inadequate long-term data about the effects of exercise and training on death, dependence and disability after stroke.[210] The future areas of research may concentrate on the optimal exercise prescription and long-term health benefits of exercise. The effect of physical training on cognition also may be studied further.
The ability to walk independently in their community, indoors or outdoors, is important following stroke. Although no negative effects have been reported, it is unclear if outcomes can improve with these walking programs when compared to usual treatment.[212]
Other therapy methods
Some current and future therapy methods include the use of virtual reality and video games for rehabilitation. These forms of rehabilitation offer potential for motivating people to perform specific therapy tasks that many other forms do not.[213] While virtual reality and interactive video gaming are not more effective than conventional therapy for improving upper limb function, when used in conjunction with usual care these approaches may improve upper limb function and ADL function.[214] There are inadequate data on the effect of virtual reality and interactive video gaming on gait speed, balance, participation and quality of life.[214] Many clinics and hospitals are adopting the use of these off-the-shelf devices for exercise, social interaction, and rehabilitation because they are affordable, accessible and can be used within the clinic and home.[213]
Mirror therapy is associated with improved motor function of the upper extremity in people who have had stroke.[215]
Other non-invasive rehabilitation methods used to augment physical therapy of motor function in people recovering from stroke include transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation.[216] and robotic therapies.[217] Constraint‐induced movement therapy (CIMT), mental practice, mirror therapy, interventions for sensory impairment, virtual reality and a relatively high dose of repetitive task practice may be effective in improving upper limb function. However, further primary research, specifically of CIMT, mental practice, mirror therapy and virtual reality is needed.[218]
Orthotics
Clinical studies confirm the importance of orthoses in stroke rehabilitation.[219][220][221] The orthosis supports the therapeutic applications and also helps to mobilize the patient at an early stage. With the help of an orthosis, physiological standing and walking can be learned again, and late health consequences caused by a wrong gait pattern can be prevented. A treatment with an orthosis can therefore be used to support the therapy.
Self-management
Stroke can affect the ability to live independently and with quality. Self-management programs are a special training that educates stroke survivors about stroke and its consequences, helps them acquire skills to cope with their challenges, and helps them set and meet their own goals during their recovery process. These programs are tailored to the target audience, and led by someone trained and expert in stroke and its consequences (most commonly professionals, but also stroke survivors and peers). A 2016 review reported that these programs improve the quality of life after stroke, without negative effects. People with stroke felt more empowered, happy and satisfied with life after participating in this training.[222]
Prognosis
Disability affects 75% of stroke survivors enough to decrease their ability to work.[223] Stroke can affect people physically, mentally, emotionally, or a combination of the three. The results of stroke vary widely depending on size and location of the lesion.[224]
Physical effects
Some of the physical disabilities that can result from stroke include muscle weakness, numbness,
Emotional and mental effects
Emotional and mental dysfunctions correspond to areas in the brain that have been damaged. Emotional problems following stroke can be due to direct damage to emotional centers in the brain or from frustration and difficulty adapting to new limitations. Post-stroke emotional difficulties include
Disruption in self-identity, relationships with others, and emotional well-being can lead to social consequences after stroke due to the lack of ability to communicate. Many people who experience communication impairments after stroke find it more difficult to cope with the social issues rather than physical impairments. Broader aspects of care must address the emotional impact speech impairment has on those who experience difficulties with speech after stroke.[200] Those who experience stroke are at risk of paralysis which could result in a self disturbed body image which may also lead to other social issues.[228]
30 to 50% of stroke survivors develop post-stroke depression, which is characterized by lethargy, irritability,
Emotional lability, another consequence of stroke, causes the person to switch quickly between emotional highs and lows and to express emotions inappropriately, for instance with an excess of laughing or crying with little or no provocation. While these expressions of emotion usually correspond to the person's actual emotions, a more severe form of emotional lability causes the affected person to laugh and cry pathologically, without regard to context or emotion.[223] Some people show the opposite of what they feel, for example crying when they are happy.[231] Emotional lability occurs in about 20% of those who have had stroke. Those with a right hemisphere stroke are more likely to have empathy problems which can make communication harder.[232]
Cognitive deficits resulting from stroke include perceptual disorders, aphasia,[233] dementia,[234][235] and problems with attention[236] and memory.[237] Stroke survivors may be unaware of their own disabilities, a condition called anosognosia. In a condition called hemispatial neglect, the affected person is unable to attend to anything on the side of space opposite to the damaged hemisphere. Cognitive and psychological outcome after stroke can be affected by the age at which the stroke happened, pre-stroke baseline intellectual functioning, psychiatric history and whether there is pre-existing brain pathology.[238]
Epidemiology
no data <250 250–425 425–600 600–775 775–950 950–1125 | 1125–1300 1300–1475 1475–1650 1650–1825 1825–2000 >2000 |
Stroke was the second most frequent cause of death worldwide in 2011, accounting for 6.2 million deaths (~11% of the total).[240] Approximately 17 million people had stroke in 2010 and 33 million people have previously had stroke and were still alive.[18] Between 1990 and 2010 the incidence of stroke decreased by approximately 10% in the developed world and increased by 10% in the developing world.[18] Overall, two-thirds of stroke occurred in those over 65 years old.[18] South Asians are at particularly high risk of stroke, accounting for 40% of global stroke deaths.[241] Incidence of ischemic stroke is ten times more frequent than haemorrhagic stroke.[242]
It is ranked after heart disease and before cancer.
The risk of stroke increases exponentially from 30 years of age, and the cause varies by age.[244] Advanced age is one of the most significant stroke risk factors. 95% of stroke occurs in people age 45 and older, and two-thirds of stroke occurs in those over the age of 65.[50][229]
A person's risk of dying if he or she does have stroke also increases with age. However, stroke can occur at any age, including in childhood.[citation needed]
Family members may have a genetic tendency for stroke or share a lifestyle that contributes to stroke. Higher levels of Von Willebrand factor are more common amongst people who have had ischemic stroke for the first time.[245] The results of this study found that the only significant genetic factor was the person's blood type. Having stroke in the past greatly increases one's risk of future stroke.
Men are 25% more likely to develop stroke than women,
History
Episodes of stroke and familial stroke have been reported from the 2nd millennium BC onward in ancient Mesopotamia and Persia.[246] Hippocrates (460 to 370 BC) was first to describe the phenomenon of sudden paralysis that is often associated with ischemia. Apoplexy, from the Greek word meaning "struck down with violence", first appeared in Hippocratic writings to describe this phenomenon.[247][248] The word stroke was used as a synonym for apoplectic seizure as early as 1599,[249] and is a fairly literal translation of the Greek term. The term apoplectic stroke is an archaic, nonspecific term, for a cerebrovascular accident accompanied by haemorrhage or haemorrhagic stroke.[250] Martin Luther was described as having an apoplectic stroke that deprived him of his speech shortly before his death in 1546.[251]
In 1658, in his Apoplexia,
Wepfer also identified the mainThe term cerebrovascular accident was introduced in 1927, reflecting a "growing awareness and acceptance of vascular theories and (...) recognition of the consequences of a sudden disruption in the vascular supply of the brain".[253] Its use is now discouraged by a number of neurology textbooks, reasoning that the connotation of fortuitousness carried by the word accident insufficiently highlights the modifiability of the underlying risk factors.[254][255][256] Cerebrovascular insult may be used interchangeably.[257]
The term brain attack was introduced for use to underline the acute nature of stroke according to the
Research
As of 2017, angioplasty and stents were under preliminary clinical research to determine the possible therapeutic advantages of these procedures in comparison to therapy with statins, antithrombotics, or antihypertensive drugs.[260]
See also
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Further reading
- Gijn, Jan van (2023). Stroke: A History of Ideas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-83254-0.
- Mohr JP, Choi D, Grotta J, Wolf P (2004). Stroke: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. New York: Churchill Livingstone. OCLC 50477349.
- Warlow CP, van Gijn J, Dennis MS, Wardlaw JM, Bamford JM, Hankey GJ, Sandercock PA, Rinkel G, Langhorne P, Sudlow C, Rothwell P (2008). Stroke: Practical Management (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2766-0.
External links
- Stroke at Curlie
- DRAGON Score for Post-Thrombolysis Archived 2020-10-27 at the Wayback Machine
- THRIVE score for stroke outcome Archived 2016-09-13 at the Wayback Machine
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke