Islam

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Islam
ٱلْإِسْلَام
Al-Islām
Druze Faith[5]
  • Yarsanism[6]
  • Number of followersc. 1.9 billion[7] Increase (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the Ummah)

    Islam (

    Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام, romanizedal-Islām, lit.'submission [to the will of God]') is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number approximately 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.[9]

    Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a

    sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem
    .

    The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), as well as through conquests, imperialism, and colonialism.

    The two main

    fertility rate, Muslims are the world's fastest-growing
    major religious group.

    Etymology

    In Arabic, Islam (

    Arabic: إسلام, lit.'submission [to God]')[10][11][12] is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[13] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[14] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,[15] is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[16][17]

    Islam itself was historically called

    offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.[18]

    Articles of faith

    The Islamic

    Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.[19]

    God

    Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul Turkey

    The central concept of Islam is

    iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[22][23]

    Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the

    ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[25]

    Angels

    A 16th century Siyer-i Nebi image of the angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad

    Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran

    Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[27] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[40]

    Scriptures

    A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text

    The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the

    āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[10][45] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[46][47] In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[48][49] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[50]

    Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called

    Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[51][52][53][54] while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[45][55][56][57]

    Prophets

    A 15th century[58] Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer

    Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl).

    Qisas al-Anbiya
    (Stories of the Prophets).

    Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("

    ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[67] Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[68][69]

    Resurrection and judgment

    The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where Islamic tradition says Isa (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the Day of Judgment

    Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or

    Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[70][71][72]

    On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to

    lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals[74] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[75][76][77] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").[iv]

    Divine predestination

    The concept of divine predestination in Islam (

    Arabic: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[82]

    Acts of worship

    There are five acts of worship that are considered duties – the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (alms-giving), fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[83] In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[84]

    Declaration of faith

    Mughal Emperor Akbar
    , c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah

    The

    convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[87][88]

    Prayer

    Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus

    Prayer in Islam, called

    rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[89][90][91][92]

    A

    Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[93] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[94][95]

    Almsgiving

    A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco

    debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies.[97] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,[98] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[99] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[100] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.[101][102] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[103]

    Fasting

    dates
    .

    In Islam, fasting (

    smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.[104] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[105]

    Pilgrimage

    Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj
    season

    The Islamic

    Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[106][107][108] The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil.[109] All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[110][111] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.[112][113]

    Other acts of worship

    Muslim men reading the Quran

    Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran.[114] Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[115] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.[116]

    Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (

    Arabic: دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.[117]

    Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[118]

    History

    Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia
    , the second most sacred Mosque in Islam

    Muhammad and the birth of Islam (570–632)

    Cave of Hira

    According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in

    seal of the prophets sent to mankind.[51][52][121]

    During this time,

    Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[122] The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.[123][124]

    After 12 years of the

    Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[127][128] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[129][41]

    Early Islamic period (632–750)

    Expansion of Rashidun Caliphate
    Dome of the Rock built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna

    Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called

    ahl al-bayt.[144]
    Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[145][146] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[147][148][149] The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as Isis.[150] The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[151] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[152]

    The Umayyad dynasty conquered the

    mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[156][157]

    Classical era (750–1258)

    Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.

    Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.[159][160]

    At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the

    Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[166][167]

    Hunain ibn Ishaq
    from a manuscript dated c. 1200

    This era is sometimes called the "

    University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[187] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians,[188] contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[189][190] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[191][188][192]

    Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the

    Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[195] and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[196] Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[197]

    The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting

    Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[198] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[199] Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[200] Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.[201]

    Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)

    Ghazan Khan, 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire
    , converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction

    Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,[202] Islam spread into new areas[203] and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

    Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[204] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[205] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[206] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[b][208] Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[209] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[210][211]

    Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the

    Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[215]

    After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[216] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[217] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[218]

    The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A

    Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[221] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[222] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[223]

    Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

    Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty
    .

    Earlier in the 14th century,

    Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[237][238]

    The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[239] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[240] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[241] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[242][243] Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.[244]

    The

    Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[251]

    Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.

    Muslim population in Latin America.[253] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,[254] likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[255]

    Contemporary era (20th century–present)

    Islamic Summit Conference
    in Istanbul, Turkey

    Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the

    Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[261]

    In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[262][263] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[264] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[265] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[266] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[267]

    Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[268] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[269] the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[270] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[271] Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[272][273] while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[274]

    The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the

    Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,[280][281] an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[282][283] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites,[284] and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.[285]

    Demographics

    Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[286]
    World percentage of Muslims by country

    As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.

    Muslim-majority,[294][295][296][297][298][299] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia,[300] Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[301][302][303] Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[304] followed by Bengalis[305][306] and Punjabis.[307] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[308][309] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[310] accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.[311]

    According to a report by

    In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[316] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.[317][318]

    By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of

    fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[292]

    Main branches or denominations

    Sunni

    six Sunni hadith books

    Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.

    Shafi'i.[324][325]

    Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[328]

    Said Nursi (1877–1960);[330] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[330][331]

    Shia

    The Imam Hussein Shrine in Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
    Al-Abbas Shrine, Between The Holy Shrines, Karbala, Iraq.

    Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.[332][333][293] Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[334][335]

    According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, significant event that took place at Ghadir Khumm, during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca. At Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority).[336][337] Shias recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him.[338] Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali.

    Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[343]

    Muhakkima

    Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[344] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[345]

    An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam
    An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

    Other denominations

    • Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[355] Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,[356] with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5%–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[357]
    • United Submitters International".[362]

    Non-denominational Muslims

    Non-denominational Muslims is an

    Islamic denomination.[363][364] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[365][366][367] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.[368]

    Mysticism

    The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi
    Sufism in Konya, Turkey

    Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a

    Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the bestselling poets in America.[376][377]

    Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.

    Salafism. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[381]

    Sufi congregations form orders (

    Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[383][384][385] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[386][387] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[368][388]

    Law and jurisprudence

    Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[324][389] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[390][391] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[324]

    Traditional

    muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[390] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[390][391] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[393] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[394] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[391]

    Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (

    Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[391][395] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[396][397]

    Schools of jurisprudence

    A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (

    Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[398] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[399]

    Society

    Religious personages

    Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856)

    Islam has no clergy in the

    saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).[401]

    Governance

    In

    Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[409]

    offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation is 868 CE.[417][418]

    Daily and family life

    Islamic veils represent modesty

    Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and

    personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[428]

    A Muslim Couple

    In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[429][430][431] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[432][433] Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[434][435] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[436] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[437]

    Shia Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran

    After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[438] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[439] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[439] Male circumcision, called khitan,[440] is often practised in the Muslim world.[441][442] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[443]

    A

    Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[446]

    Arts and culture

    The term "

    festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[447] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[448] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[449]

    mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[455]

    The

    Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[457][83]

    Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[458][459]

    Influences on other religions

    Some movements, such as the

    Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[467] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[468]

    Criticism

    John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.[469]

    Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[470]

    Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [471]

    Defamatory images of

    Byzantine Church,[472] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[473] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[473]

    Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.[474] Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[475]

    See also

    References

    Footnotes

    1. ^ "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[162]
    2. ^ "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[207]
    3. footbinding of girls for the same reason.[424]

    Quran and hadith

    1. ^ Quran 2:117
    2. ^ Quran 1:4;
    3. ^ Quran 6:31;
    4. ^ Quran 101:1

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    453. . Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...
    454. . Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
    455. . As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
    456. . In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
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