Islamic–Jewish relations

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The signing of the Camp David Accords in September 1978 were a vital step forward in improving Jewish–Islamic relations, specifically between Israel and Egypt. Left to right: president of Egypt Anwar Sadat, U.S. president Jimmy Carter, and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin

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Islamic–Jewish relations comprise the

Children of Israel as an important religious concept in Islam. Moses, the most important prophet of Judaism, is also considered a prophet and messenger in Islam.[2] Moses is mentioned in the Quran more than any other individual, and his life is narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet.[3] There are approximately 43 references to the Israelites in the Quran (excluding individual prophets),[4] and many in the Hadith. Later rabbinic authorities and Jewish scholars such as Maimonides discussed the relationship between Islam and Jewish law. Maimonides himself, it has been argued, was influenced by Islamic legal thought.[5]

Because Islam and Judaism share a common origin in the

better source needed
]

Religious figures

Further information:
History of the Levant
The Cave of the Patriarchs, burial place of Abraham.
Moses with the Ten Commandments, by Rembrandt.

The term "Semitic" is due to the legendary derivation of the peoples so called from Shem, son of Noah (

racialist concept derived from Biblical accounts of the origins of the cultures known to the ancient Hebrews. Those closest to them in culture and language were generally deemed to be descended from their forefather Shem, one of the sons of Noah.[citation needed] Enemies were often said to be descendants of his cursed nephew Canaan, grandson of Noah, son of Ham. Modern historians confirm the affinity of ancient Hebrews and Arabs based on characteristics that are usually transmitted from parent to child, such as genes and habits, with the most well-studied criterion being language.[citation needed] Similarities between Semitic languages (including Hebrew and Arabic) and their differences with those spoken by other adjacent people confirm the common origin of Hebrews and Arabs among other Semitic nations.[9]

Around the 12th century BC, Judaism developed as a

history of Judaism begins with the Covenant between God and Abraham, who is considered a Hebrew. (The first Hebrew being Eber, a forefather of Abraham.) The Hebrew Bible occasionally refers to Arvi peoples (or variants thereof), translated as "Arab" or "Arabian" deriving from "Arava" plain, the dwellers of plains.[citation needed] Some Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula are considered descendants of Ismael, the first son of Abraham.[citation needed] While the commonly held view among historians is that Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century AD, in Islam's view, Adam was the first Muslim (in the sense of believing in Allah and surrendering to Allah's commands). Islam also shares many traits with Judaism (as well as with Christianity), like the belief in and reverence for common prophets, such as Moses and Abraham,[10]
who are recognized in all three Abrahamic religions.

Abraham

Judaism and Islam are known as "

Tanakh.[12]

Moses

As in Judaism and Christianity, Moses is regarded in Islam as one of the most prominent prophets. His story is frequently recounted in both the Meccan and Medinan chapters, some of which are long. Although there are differences in the Quranic and Biblical accounts, the remaining narratives are similar. They agree on the events of Moses' infancy, exile to Midian, plagues and miracles, deliverage of the Israelites, parting of the Red Sea, the revelation of the tablets, the incident of the Golden Calf and the 40 years of wandering.[13][14]

According to Noegel and Wheeler some scholars think there is a parallel between the status of Aaron in Moses' narrative and Umar in the narrative of Muhammad. In both the Biblical and Quranic accounts, Moses is accompanied by Aaron. In both accounts Moses is portrayed more actively. The Quranic and Biblical accounts differ on the nus of responsibility for the Golden Calf incident. The Bible accuses Aaron, whereas the Quranic narrative defends him.[15]

Muhammad

Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim
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Main article: Muhammad's views on Jews

In the course of Muhammad's proselytizing in

Mount Hira,[16] a delegation consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina pledged to physically protect Muhammad and invited him as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community, which had been fighting with each other for around a hundred years and was in need of an authority.[17][18][19]

Among the things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina. The community defined in the Constitution of Medina had a religious outlook but was also shaped by the practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[20] Muhammad also adopted some features of the Jewish worship and customs such as fasting on the Yom Kippur day. According to Alford Welch, the Jewish practice of having three daily prayer rituals appears to have been a factor in the introduction of the Islamic midday prayer, but Muhammad's adoption of facing north toward Jerusalem, Islam's first Qiblah or direction of prayer (later changed to facing toward the Kabah in Mecca), when performing the daily prayers, was practiced among other groups in Arabia.

Many Medinans converted to the faith of the Meccan immigrants, particularly pagan and polytheist tribes, but there were fewer Jewish converts.

Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, who was partial to the Jews and would have been Medina's prince if not for Muhammad's arrival.[22][23]

Mark Cohen adds that Muhammad appeared "centuries after the cessation of biblical prophecy" and "couched his message in a verbiage foreign to Judaism both in its format and rhetoric."[24] Maimonides, a Jewish scholar, referred to Muhammad as a false prophet. Moreover, Maimonides asserted that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was in itself what disqualified him, because it contradicted the prophecy of Moses, the Torah and the Oral Tradition. His argument further asserted that Muhammad being illiterate also disqualified him from being a prophet.[25]

In the

Banu Qurayza
.

Other prophets

Both Judaism and Islam regard many people as being prophets, with exceptions. Both teach that

Joseph were prophets.[30][31][32][33][34] However, according to one sage in Judaism the whole story attributed to Job was an allegory and Job never actually existed.[35][36][37] Rashi
, a Jewish commentator on the Hebrew Scriptures, quotes a text dating to 160 AD, which is also quoted in the Talmud, in his commentary on Genesis 10 to show that Eber was a prophet.

Historical interaction

Main article: History of the Jews under Muslim rule

Jews have often lived in predominantly

Islamic history, a single community, such as the Jewish community in Cairo
, may have been contained in a number of different nations over different periods.

Middle Ages

Al Andalus, from the 14th century Haggadah of Barcelona
.

In the

Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula.[39]

Traditionally Jews living in Muslim lands, known (along with Christians) as

Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus as well as in Persia.[46]

The medieval

Khazaria converted to Judaism, whereas its subject Volga Bulgaria
converted to Islam.

Conversion of Jews to Islam

According to Judaism, Jews that voluntarily convert to Islam commit a treacherous act of heresy in abandoning the Torah.

Rambam, also known as Maimonides, expresses that it is not necessary that a Jew take his own life if he is forced to convert but privately follows the Torah.[50]

Islam accepts converts, and spreading Dawah to other religious adherents including Jews.

In modern times, some notable converts to Islam from a Jewish background include

Layla Morad and Maryam Jameelah (b. Margret Marcus). More than 200 Israeli Jews converted to Islam between 2000 and 2008.[51]
Historically, in accordance with traditional Islamic law, Jews generally enjoyed freedom of religion in Islamic states as
forced to convert to Islam.[53]

In

Allahdad incident
.)

In Turkey, the claimed messiah Sabbatai Zevi was forced to convert to Islam in 1668.[55] Most of his followers abandoned him, but several thousand converted to Islam as well, while continuing to see themselves as Jews.[55] They became known as the Dönmeh (a Turkish word for a religious convert). Some Dönmeh remain today, primarily in Turkey.

Conversion of Muslims to Judaism

Judaism does not proselytize, and often discourages conversion to Judaism; maintaining that all people have a covenant with God, and instead encourages non-Jews to uphold the

Kish Air flight 707 between Tehran and the resort of Kish Island in September 1995, and landed in Israel converted to Judaism after serving four-and-a-half years in an Israeli prison. He settled among Iranian Jews in the Israeli Red Sea resort town of Eilat.[57] Another such case includes Avraham Sinai, a former Hezbollah fighter who, after the Israel–Lebanon War ended, fled to Israel and converted from Islam to become a religious and practicing Jew.[58]

Contemporary era

better source needed
]

In present times, the

Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries where 800,000–1,000,000 Jews were forcibly expelled or fled from Arab nations due to persecution.[64]

Interfaith activities

The Slovenian philosopher

Judeo-Muslim to describe the middle-east culture against the western Christian culture would be more appropriate in these days,[65] claiming as well a reduced influence from the Jewish culture on the western world due to the historical persecution and exclusion of the Jewish minority. (Though there is also a different perspective on Jewish contributions and influence.[66]
)

A Judaeo-Christian-Muslim concept thus refers to the three main monotheistic religions, commonly known as the Abrahamic religions. Formal exchanges between the three religions, modeled on the decades-old Jewish–Christian interfaith dialogue groups, became common in American cities following the 1993 Israeli–Palestinian Oslo accords.

The governments of Jordan and Qatar have been particularly active in fostering dialogue between Muslims and Jews, through conferences and institutes.[67]

Following 9/11, there was a breakdown in interfaith dialogue that included mosques, due to the increased attention to Islamic sermons in American mosques, that revealed "anti-Jewish and anti-Israel outbursts by previously respected Muslim clerics and community leaders."

One of the country's most prominent mosques is the New York Islamic Cultural Center, built with funding from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Malaysia. Its imam, Mohammad Al-Gamei'a, disappeared two days after 9/11.

Back in Egypt, he was interviewed on an Arabic-language Web site, charging that the "Zionist media" had covered up Jewish responsibility for the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center. He agreed with Osama bin Laden's accusations in bin Laden's Letter to America, claiming that Jews were guilty of "disseminating corruption, heresy, homosexuality, alcoholism, and drugs." And he said that Muslims in America were afraid to go to the hospital for fear that some Jewish doctors had "poisoned" Muslim children. "These people murdered the prophets; do you think they will stop spilling our blood? No," he said.[citation needed]

Since 2007, the Foundation for Ethnic Understanding, led by Rabbi Marc Schneier and Russell Simmons has made improving Muslim–Jewish relations their main focus. They have hosted the National Summit of Imams and Rabbis in 2007, the Gathering of Muslim and Jewish Leaders in Brussels in 2010 and in Paris in 2012, and three Missions of Muslim and Jewish Leaders to Washington D.C.. Each November the Foundation hosts the Weekend of Twinning which encourages Muslims and Jews, Imams and Rabbis, Mosques and synagogues, and Muslim and Jewish organizations to hold joint programming inspired by the commonalities between Muslims and Jews.[68]

The interview was published 4 October on a Web site affiliated with Cairo's Al-Azhar University, Islam's most respected theological academy. Immediately after 9/11, Imam Al-Gamei'a had presided over an interfaith service at his mosque. At the service the imam was quoted as saying, "We emphasize the condemnation of all persons, whoever they be, who have carried out this inhuman act." The Reverend James Parks Morton, president of the Interfaith Center of New York, who attended the service, called Imam Al-Gamei'a's subsequent comments "astonishing." "It makes interfaith dialogue all the more important," Reverend Morton said.[69][citation needed]

First Gathering of European Muslim and Jewish leaders in Brussels, December 2010 hosted by the Foundation for Ethnic Understanding – left to right: Grand Mufti Mustafa Ceric – European Council President Herman Van Rompuy – Rabbi Marc Schneier – Imam Dr. Abdujalil Sajid

Post 9/11 remarks made by Muslim leaders in Cleveland and Los Angeles also led to the suspension of longstanding Muslim–Jewish dialogues. Some Jewish community leaders cite the statements as the latest evidence that Muslim–Jewish dialogue is futile in today's charged atmosphere. John Rosove, senior rabbi of Temple Israel of Hollywood, and other Jewish participants withdrew from the three-year-old Muslim-Jewish dialogue group after one of the Muslim participants, Salam al-Marayati of MPAC, suggested in a radio interview that Israel should be put on the list of suspects behind the 11 September attacks.[69] However, in January 2011, MPAC member Wa’el Azmeh and Temple Israel engaged in an interfaith dialogue.[70]

In Cleveland, Jewish community leaders put Muslim–Jewish relations on hold after the spiritual leader of a prominent mosque appeared in (a 1991) videotape ...aired after 9/11 by a local TV station. Imam Fawaz Damra calls for "directing all the rifles at the first and last enemy of the Islamic nation and that is the sons of monkeys and pigs, the Jews." The revelation was all the more shocking since Imam Damra had been an active participant in local interfaith activities.[69]

Good Jewish–Muslim relations continue in Detroit, which has the nation's largest Arab-American community. Jewish organizations there have established good relations with a religious group called the Islamic Supreme Council of North America.

In Los Angeles, there has been a formation of an interfaith think tank through the partnership of neighboring institutions the

The Center for Muslim–Jewish Engagement
has an extensive online resource center with scholarly works on similar topics from Muslim and Jewish perspectives. The Center of Muslim–Jewish Engagement has begun to launch an interfaith religious text-study group to build bonds and form a positive community promoting interfaith relations.

Common aspects

Sefer Torah opened for liturgical use in a synagogue
service
11th-century North African Quran in the British Museum

There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism. As Islam

Isra'iliyat.[71]

Holy scripture

Further information:
Biblical narratives and the Qur'an

Islam and Judaism share the idea of a revealed scripture. Even though they differ over the precise text and its interpretations, the Hebrew

Divine Judgment. Reflecting the vintage of the religions, the Torah is traditionally in the form of a scroll and the Qur'an in the form of a codex
.

Muslims commonly refer to Jews (and Christians) as fellow "

Al-Baqara, 256). Some restrictions for Muslims are relaxed, such as Muslim males being allowed to marry a woman from the "People of the Book",[72] or Muslims being allowed to eat Kosher meat.[73]

The Quranic account and Islamic sources explain that the Torah has undergone extensive corruption through textual alteration and contextomy. Various Jewish factions had sparred in the Hasmonean era of who the most notable were the Pharisees and Sadducees. The modern Jewish tradition originates from the Pharisaic school which has dominated Jewish theology since the end of the Second Temple period. The Pharisees and Sadducees had differed over the interpretation of the Biblocal canon. The Sadducees adopted a stricter literal interpretation of the Bible against the Pharisaic stress on the Oral Torah and a non-literal interpretation of the written Torah with the usage of the oral Torah. Such interpretation advanced far beyond the literal interpretations. Later the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud continued with constructing a framework of interpreting the Torah homiletically. This framework was sketched out early in the Talmud and this framework is attributed to R.Hillel, R.Ishmael b. Elisha and R. Eli'ezer b.R. Yossey of the Galilee. The Bablylonian Talmud documents seventy incidents where the sages interpreted the Bible by chainging a word or more. This came about by processes such as changing the vocalisation of verbiage, because Hebrew alphabet is consonantal, to suit a particular interpretation. At other times Talmudic sages would split words into two. With this evidence, Mazuz points out that the Quranic charge of the Torah's corruption was not misleading but was a rejection of the homiletic methodology in the Talmud.[74]

Religious law

Further information: Halakha and Sharia

Rules of conduct

The most obvious common practice is the statement of the absolute unity of God, which Muslims observe in their five times daily prayers (

dietary laws
and other aspects of ritual purity. Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called
Kosher in Judaism and Halal in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork. Halal restrictions are similar to a subset of the Kashrut
dietary laws, so all kosher foods are considered halal, while not all halal foods are Kosher. Halal laws, for instance, do not prohibit the mixing of milk and meat or the consumption of shellfish, each of which are prohibited by the kosher laws, with the exception that in the Shia Islam belief shellfish, mussels, and similar sea foods and fish without scales are not considered halal.

Sacred texts of both religions ban homosexuality and forbid human sexual relations outside of marriage[75] and necessitate abstinence during the wife's menstruation. Both Islam and Judaism practice circumcision of males.

Further information: Jewish observances and Five Pillars of Islam

Other similarities

Islam and Judaism both consider the Christian doctrine of the

Al-Shai'tan both rejecting him as an opponent of God. Many angels also possess similar names and roles in both Judaism and Islam. Neither religion subscribes to the concept of original sin and both religions traditionally view homosexuality as sinful. Narrative similarities between Jewish texts and the Hadith have also been noted. For example, both state that Potiphar's wife was named Zuleika.[76]

There is a small bone in the body at the base of the spinal column called the

seventh cervical vertebra) from which the body will be rebuilt at the time of resurrection, according to Muslims and Jews who share the belief that this bone does not decay.[citation needed] Muslim books refer to this bone as "^Ajbu al-Thanab" (عَجْبُ الذَّنَب). Rabbi Joshua Ben Hananiah replied to Hadrian
, as to how man revived in the world to come, "From Luz, in the back-bone".

The Islamic Hadith and Jewish Talmud have also often been compared as authoritative extracanonical texts that were originally oral transmissions for generations before being committed to writing.[77][78][79]

Interplay between Jewish and Islamic thought

Main article:
Judeo–Islamic philosophies (800–1400)
Manuscript page in Arabic written in the Hebrew alphabet by Maimonides (12th century).
See also: Jewish philosophy and Early Islamic philosophy

Saadia Gaon

Main article: Saadia Gaon

One of the most important early Jewish philosophers influenced by Islamic philosophy is Rav Saadia Gaon (892–942). His most important work is Emunoth ve-Deoth (Book of Beliefs and Opinions). In this work Saadia treats of the questions that interested the Mutakallimun so deeply—such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc.—and he criticizes the philosophers severely.

The 12th century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy. This supreme exaltation of philosophy was due, in great measure, to

Judah ha-Levi (1140) among the Jews. Like Ghazali, Judah ha-Levi took upon himself to free religion from the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the Kuzari
, in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike.

Maimonides

Main article: Maimonides

Maimonides endeavored to harmonize the philosophy of

Guide for the Perplexed)—known better under its Hebrew title Moreh Nevuchim—which served for many centuries as the subject of discussion and comment by Jewish thinkers. In this work, Maimonides considers creation
, the unity of God, the attributes of God, the soul, etc., and treats them in accordance with the theories of Aristotle to the extent in which these latter do not conflict with religion. For example, while accepting the teachings of Aristotle upon matter and form, he pronounces against the eternity of matter. Nor does he accept Aristotle's theory that God can have a knowledge of universals only, and not of particulars. If He had no knowledge of particulars, He would be subject to constant change. Maimonides argues: "God perceives future events before they happen, and this perception never fails Him. Therefore there are no new ideas to present themselves to Him. He knows that such and such an individual does not yet exist, but that he will be born at such a time, exist for such a period, and then return into non-existence. When then this individual comes into being, God does not learn any new fact; nothing has happened that He knew not of, for He knew this individual, such as he is now, before his birth" (Moreh, i.20). While seeking thus to avoid the troublesome consequences certain Aristotelian theories would entail upon religion, Maimonides could not altogether escape those involved in Aristotle's idea of the unity of souls; and herein he laid himself open to the attacks of the orthodox.

A series of eminent men—such as the

Joseph ben Judah
, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Roshd's commentary.

In a response, Maimonides discusses the relationship between Judaism and Islam:

The Ishmaelites are not at all idolaters; [idolatry] has long been severed from their mouths and hearts; and they attribute to God a proper unity, a unity concerning which there is no doubt. And because they lie about us, and falsely attribute to us the statement that God has a son, is no reason for us to lie about them and say that they are idolaters ... And should anyone say that the house that they honor [the Kaaba] is a house of idolatry and an idol is hidden within it, which their ancestors used to worship, then what of it? The hearts of those who bow down toward it today are [directed] only toward Heaven ... [Regarding] the Ishmaelites today—idolatry has been severed from the mouths of all of them [including] women and children. Their error and foolishness is in other things which cannot be put into writing because of the renegades and wicked among Israel [i.e., apostates]. But as regards the unity of God they have no error at all.[80]

Influence on exegesis

Saadia Gaon's commentary on the

Neoplatonic mysticism, and which took the name of Kabbalah
.

Muslim–Jewish wars and military conflicts

Main articles: Antisemitism in Islam and Islam and war

In the early days of Islam, according to Islamic sources, a

Arab States declared war on Israel, in which the Israelis were victorious. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, twelve more wars were fought between the Arab States and Israel.[citation needed] The Arab–Israeli conflict
has weakened Islamic–Jewish relations severely.

See also

History

Culture

Issues

Comparative religion

Notes

  1. ^ a b Prager, D; Telushkin, J. Why the Jews?: The Reason for Antisemitism. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983. pp. 110–26.
  2. ^ Quran 19:51: "And mention in the Book ˹O Prophet, the story of˺ Moses. He was truly a chosen man, and was a messenger and a prophet."
  3. ^ Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), Abraham's children: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in conversation, by. T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55–66.
  4. ^ Yahud, Encyclopedia of Islam
  5. ^ Sarah Stroumsa, Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker, Princeton University Press, 2009, pp. 65–66: 'we do know the extent of Maimonides' involvement in the wider Islamic culture. We know that, as far as science and learning are concerned, he was deeply immersed in the culture, and did his best to remain abreast of the developments that occurred in it. The reluctance to acknowledge his familiarity with Muslim law is therefore puzzling, particularly since there is no evidence for such reluctance on Maimonides' part' (p. 65)
  6. Muqtedar Khan (4 December 2009). "Mukhayriq 'the best of the Jews'"
    . Slash News.
  7. ^ "Samuel ha'Nagid". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
  8. ^ Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, Volume 4, The Age of Faith p. 156
  9. ^ The religion of Semites, ch. 1
  10. ^ Genesis 20
  11. ^ Sources for the following are:
    • J. Z. Smith 1998, p. 276
    • Anidjar 2001, p. 3
  12. ^ Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), Abraham's children: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conversation, by. T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55–66.
  13. ISBN 978-90-232-3880-5
    .
  14. ISBN 978-1-4520-3049-4
    .
  15. ISBN 978-1-4617-1895-6
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  16. Encyclopedia of the Quran
  17. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, (1997), p. 39
  18. ^ a b c Esposito, John. (1998), Islam: the Straight Path, extended edition. Oxford university press, p.17.
  19. ^ 'Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam', Alford Welch
  20. ^ Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam, Alford Welch
  21. ^ Watt (1956), p. 175, p. 177
  22. ^ a b The Cambridge History of Islam, pp. 43–44
  23. ^ Gerhard Endress, Islam, Columbia University Press, p.29
  24. ^ Mark R. Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages, p. 23, Princeton University Press
  25. ^ Allusion to Muhammad in Maimonides' Theory of Prophecy in His Guide of the Perplexed By Yehuda Shamir, University of Cincinnati
  26. ISBN 0-87840-910-6
  27. ISBN 978-0-912463-36-0
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  28. ISBN 978-90-04-26609-4
    .
  29. ^ See Quran 2:100
  30. ^ "JOSEPH". jewishencyclopedia.com.
  31. ^ Bava Batra 15b.
  32. ^ "anwary-islam.com is for sale". anwary-islam.com. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007.
  33. ^ "anwary-islam.com is for sale". anwary-islam.com. Archived from the original on 27 August 2007.
  34. ^ "The Prophets of Islam – A Referenced List". islamtutor.com. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007.
  35. ^ "Job". jewishencyclopedia.com. One of the amoraim expressed his opinion in the presence of Samuel b. Naḥmani that Job never existed and that the whole story was a fable (B. B. 15a).
  36. ^ "Donmeh West – A Commentary on the Book of Job". donmeh-west.com. Archived from the original on 27 October 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007. Job never was and never existed, but is only a parable." (Tr. Baba Bathra 15a)
  37. Baba Bathra
    15a). Those, on the other hand, who believe that he "existed and was created" and that the story happened, do not know at what time and in what place he lived."
  38. ^ Cowling (2005), p. 265
  39. ^ Poliakov (1974), pp. 91–96
  40. ^ a b Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20
  41. ^ Lewis (1987), pp. 9, 27
  42. ^ Lewis (1999), p. 131
  43. ^ Lewis (1999), p. 131; (1984), pp. 8, 62
  44. ^ a b Cohen ' 'Tikkun' ', Vol. 6, No. 3. (1991).
  45. ^ Stillman ' 'Tikkun' ' Vol. 6, No. 3. (1991)
  46. ^ a b Lewis (1984), pp. 17–18, 94–95; Stillman (1979), p. 27
  47. ^ Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p. 77
  48. ^ Lewis (1984), p. 28
  49. ^ Mishneh Torah Hilkhot Teshuvah 3.20 "One who separates himself from the Community, even if he does not commit a transgression but only holds aloof from the congregation of Israel, does not fulfill religious precepts in common with his people, show himself indifferent when they are in distress, does not observe their fast, but goes in his own way, as if were one of the gentiles and did not belong to the Jewish people-such a person has no portion in the world to come"
  50. ^ Ritva on Pesachim 25b "And you should know that the faith of the [Muslims], although they believe in the unity of God, it is considered complete idolatry in terms of getting killed and not converting, for one who admits to their faith denies the Torah of Moses, saying that it is not true as it is in our hands, and anything like this is complete idolatry, and they (Chazal) did not say by other commandments that one should transgress rather than get killed where their intent is to have one transgress, except in a circumstance where they tell him to violate Shabbat in order to transgress his religion, but not in a circumstance where they tell him to violate Shabbat so as to concede that your Torah is not true and God did not command to keep Shabbat. So I have heard".
  51. ^ Felter, Nurit (14 November 2008). "Sharp drop in Christians converting to Judaism". Ynetnews. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
  52. ^ Primack, Karen. "The Renewal of Jewish Identity in Timbuktu" Archived 29 October 2005 at the Wayback Machine, kulanu.org. Retrieved 12 November 2006.
  53. ^ Abbas, Najam. "The Outsiders" (review of Chala (The Outcast) by Mansur Surosh Dushanb) Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, kulanu.org. Retrieved 16 April 2007.
  54. ISBN 0-8052-0759-7
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  59. ^ Report Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, 16 February 2000, cited from Baháʼí Library Online. The Encyclopaedia Judaica estimated the number of Jews in Iran at 25,000 in 1996.
  60. ^ "Jews of Iran". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
  61. ^ a b "Part 3: Partition, War and Independence". The Mideast: A Century of Conflict. NPR. 2 October 2002. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
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  64. ISBN 0-87395-291-X
  65. ^ "Slavoj Zizek – A Glance into the Archives of Islam". lacan.com.
  66. ^ "Jewish Nobel Prize winners". Jinfo.org.
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References

Further reading

External links

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