Protestantism and Islam
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Protestantism and Islam entered into contact during the early-16th century when the
The early Protestants and Islam established a sense of mutual tolerance and understanding, despite theological differences on Christology, considering each other to be closer to one another than to Catholicism.[1] The Ottoman Empire supported the early Protestant churches and contributed to their survival in dire times. Martin Luther regarded the Ottomans as allies against the papacy, considering them the "rod of God's wrath against Europe's sins."[2] The allegiances of the Ottoman Empire and threat of Ottoman expansion in Eastern Europe pressured King Charles V to sign the Peace of Nuremberg with the Protestant princes, accept the Peace of Passau, and the Peace of Augsburg, formally recognizing Protestantism in Germany and ending military threats to their existence.[3]
Historical background
Protestantism and Islam entered into contact during the 16th century when
Relations became more adversarial in the early modern and modern periods, although recent attempts have been made at rapprochement. In terms of comparative religion, there are interesting similarities especially with the Sunni, while Catholics are often noted for similarities with Shias,[4][5][6][7][8][9] as well as differences, in both religious approaches.
Following the Ottoman conquest of
At the same time the
Early religious accommodation (15th–17th centuries)
During the development of the Reformation, Protestantism and Islam were considered closer to each other than they were to Catholicism: "Islam was seen as closer to Protestantism in banning images from places of worship, in not treating marriage as a sacrament and in rejecting
Mutual tolerance
The Sultan of the
The great emperor of the Turks does with as great devotion as any prince in the world honour and observe the religion by him received from his ancestors, and yet detests he not the strange religions of others; but on the contrary permits every man to live according to his conscience: yes, and that more is, near unto his palace at Pera, suffers four diverse religions viz. that of the Jews, that of the Christians, that of the Grecians, and that of the Mahometans.
As a religious profession, however, Luther felt the same sense of tolerance for freedom of conscience to be given to Islam as to other faiths of its time:
Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live.
— Excerpt from On war against the Turk, 1529.[16]
However, this statement mentions "Turks", and it is not clear whether the meaning was of "Turks" as a representation of the specific rule of the Ottoman Empire, or as a representation of Islam in general.
Martin Luther's reasoning also appears in one of his other comments, in which he said that "A smart Turk makes a better ruler than a dumb Christian".[17]
Efforts at doctrinal rapprochement
Martin Luther also took note of the similarities between Islam and Protestantism in the rejection of idols, although he noted Islam was much more drastic in its complete rejection of images. In On War against the Turk, Luther is actually less critical of the Turks than he is of the
The Ottomans also felt closer to the Protestants than to the Catholics. At one point, a letter was sent from Suleiman the Magnificent to the "Lutherans" in Flanders, claiming that he felt close to them, "since they did not worship idols, believed in one God and fought against the Pope and Emperor".[18][16]
This notion of religious similarities was again taken up in epistolary exchanges between
In a 1574 letter to the "Members of the Lutheran sect in Flanders and Spain", Murad III made considerable efforts to highlight the similarities between Islamic and Protestants principles. He wrote:
As you, for your part, do not worship idols, you have banished the idols and portraits and "bells" from churches, and declared your faith by stating that God Almighty is one and Holy Jesus is His Prophet and Servant, and now, with heart and soul, are seeking and desirous of the true faith; but the faithless one they call Papa does not recognize his Creator as One, ascribing divinity to Holy Jesus (upon him be peace!), and worshiping idols and pictures which he has made with his own hands, thus casting doubt upon the oneness of God and instigating how many servants to that path of error.
Such claims seem to have been politically inspired as well, with the Ottomans trying to establish religious common ground as a way to secure a political alliance.[21] Elizabeth I herself however made efforts to adjust her own religious rhetoric in order to minimize differences with the Ottomans and facilitate relations.[22] In her correspondence with Murad, she stresses the monotheism and the anti-idolatry of her religion, by uniquely describing herself as:
Elizabeth, by the grace of the most mighty God, the three part and yet singular Creator of Heaven and Earth, Queen of England, France and Ireland, the most invincible and most mighty defender of the Christian faith against all the idolatry of those unworthy ones that live amongst Christians, and falsely profess the name of Christ
— Letter of Elizabeth I to Murad III.[23]
Military collaboration
Military cooperation between the Ottoman Empire and European powers started in earnest with the
Even after the 1571
Overall, the military activism of the Ottoman Empire on the southern European front probably was the reason why Lutheranism was able to survive in spite of the opposition of Charles V and reach recognition at the Peace of Augsburg in September 1555:[17] "the consolidation, expansion and legitimization of Lutheranism in Germany by 1555 should be attributed to Ottoman imperialism more than to any other single factor".[26]
The Dutch Revolt and Islam
Fundamentally, the Protestant Dutch had strong antagonisms to both the Catholics and the Muslims. In some cases however, alliances, or attempts at alliance between the Dutch and the Muslims were made possible, as when the Dutch allied with the Muslims of the
During the Dutch Revolt, the Dutch were under such a desperate situation that they looked for help from every nationality, and "indeed even a Turk", as wrote the secretary of
The Turks are very threatening, which will mean, we believe, that the king will not come to the Netherlands this year.
— Letter of William of Orange to his brother, circa 1565.[28]
The Dutch looked expectantly at the development of the
Contacts soon became more direct.
In 1574, William of Orange and
The British author
The phrase
would rather become a tributary to the Turks than live against his conscience and be treated according to those [anti-heresy] edicts.
— Letter of Flemish noble D'Esquerdes.[11]
The slogan Liever Turks dan Paaps seems to have been largely rhetorical however, and the Dutch hardly contemplated life under the Sultan at all. Ultimately, the Turks were infidels, and the heresy of Islam alone disqualified them from assuming a more central (or consistent) role in the rebels' program of propaganda.[11]
During the early 17th century the Dutch trading ports housed many Muslims, according to a Dutch traveler to Persia there would be no use in describing the Persians as "they are so numerous in Dutch cities". Dutch paintings from that time often show Turks, Persians and Jews strolling through the city. Officials that were sent to the Netherlands included Zeyn-Al-Din Beg of the Saffavid empire in 1607 and Ömer Aga of the Ottoman Empire in 1614. Like the Venetians en Genoese before them, the Dutch and English established a trade network in the eastern Mediterranean and had regular interactions with the ports of the Persian Gulf. Many Dutch painters even went to work in Isfahan, central Iran.[34]
From 1608,
Their teachers [Luther and Calvin] warned them [Protestants] against the Pope and the worshippers of Idols; they also told them not to hate the Muslims because they are the sword of God in the world against the idol-worshippers. That is why they side with the Muslims.
—Al-Hajari, The Book of the Protector of Religion against the Unbelievers[36]
During the
French Huguenots and Islam
French
Alliance between the Barbary states and England
Following the sailing of The Lion of
In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the court of Queen Elizabeth I.[42][46] Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud spent 6 months at the court of Elizabeth, in order to negotiate an alliance against Spain.[40][42] The Moroccan ruler wanted the help of an English fleet to invade Spain, Elizabeth refused, but welcomed the embassy as a sign of insurance, and instead accepted to establish commercial agreements.[43][42] Queen Elizabeth and king Ahmad continued to discuss various plans for combined military operations, with Elizabeth requesting a payment of 100,000 pounds in advance to king Ahmad for the supply of a fleet, and Ahmad asking for a tall ship to be sent to get the money. Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish".[47] Discussions however remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.[48]
Collaboration between the Ottoman Empire and England
Diplomatic relations were established with the
English writers of the period often expressed admiration towards the "Turks" and the "Ottoman Empire", describing it as endowed with "Majestical and August form and features" and being the "Powerfullest nation in Europe", saying that the Turks were "the only modern people, great in action- he who would behold these times in their greatest glory, could not find a better scene than Turky" and that they had "incredible civility".[50]
Anglo-Turkish piracy
After peace was made with Catholic
Transylvania and Hungary
In eastern
In the 17th century, Protestant communities again asked for Ottoman help against the Habsburg Catholics. When in 1606 Emperor
At the end of the century, the Hungarian leader
In the 16th century, Hungary had become almost entirely Protestant, with first Lutheranism, then soon afterwards Calvinism, but following the Habsburg policy of Counter-Reformation the western part of the country finally returned to Catholicism, while the eastern part has managed to this day to remain strongly Protestant: "although the Habsburg succeeded in re-Catholicising Royal Hungary, east of the Tisza the Reformation remained almost intact in the spirit of peaceful coexistence between the three recognized nations and respect for their diverse creeds".[59]
Rich Protestant
Relations with Persia
At about the same time England also maintained a significant relationship with Persia. In 1616, a trade agreement was reached between Shah Abbas and the
A group of English adventurers, led by Robert Shirley had a key role in modernizing the Persian army and developing its contacts with the West. In 1624, Robert Shirley led an embassy to England in order to obtain trade agreements.[61]
Later relations
These unique relations between Protestantism and Islam mainly took place during the 16th and 17th century. The ability of Protestant nations to disregard Papal bans, and therefore to establish freer commercial and other types of relations with Muslim and pagan countries, may partly explain their success in developing influence and markets in areas previously discovered by Spain and Portugal.[62] Progressively however, Protestantism became able to consolidate itself and became less dependent on external help. At the same time, the power of the Ottoman Empire waned from its 16th century peak, making attempts at alliance and conciliation less relevant. However, in 1796 the Treaty of Tripoli (between the United States of America and the Subjects of Tripoli of Barbary) noted "that no pretext arising from religious opinions shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries."
Eventually, relations between Protestantism and Islam have often tended to become conflicted. Protestant slaves were acquired by
Comparative elements
Besides the obvious differences between the two religious, there are also many similarities in their outlooks and attitudes to faith (especially with Sunni Islam),[72] especially in respect to textual criticism, iconoclasm, tendencies to fundamentalism, rejection of marriage as a sacrament, rejection of necessary penance by priests, and the rejection of monastic orders.
Textual criticism
Islam and Protestantism have in common a reliance on textual criticism of the book.[73] This historical precedence combines to fact that Islam incorporates to a certain extent the Jewish and Christian traditions, recognizing the same God and defining Jesus as a prophet, as well as recognizing Hebrew prophets, thus having a claim to encompassing all the religions of the book.[73]
Iconoclasm
Right image: The destruction of icons at the Kaaba by Muhammad
The rejection of images in worship, although more prominent in Islam, is a common point in Protestantism and Islam. This was already extensively recognized from the earliest times, as in the correspondence between
It is part of the Turks' holiness, also, that they tolerate no images or pictures and are even holier than our destroyers of images. For our destroyers tolerate, and are glad to have, images on gulden, groschen, rings, and ornaments; but the Turk tolerates none of them and stamps nothing but letters on his coins.
—On War against the Turk 1529 Martin Luther[76]
Rich Protestant
Fundamentalism
Islam and Protestantism have in common that they are both based on a direct analysis of the scriptures (the Bible for Protestantism and the Quran for Islam). This can be contrasted to Catholicism in which knowledge is analysed, formalized and distributed by the existing structure of the Church. Islam and Protestantism are thus both based on "a rhetorical commitment to a universal mission", when Catholicism is based on an international structure. This leads to possibilities of fundamentalism, based on the popular reinterpretation of scriptures by radical elements.[77] The term "fundamentalism" was first used in America in the 1920, to describe "the consciously anti-modernist wing of Protestantism".[78]
Islamic and Protestant fundamentalism also tend to be very normative of individuals' behaviours: "Religious fundamentalism in Protestantism and Islam is very concerned with norms surrounding gender, sexuality, and family",[78] although Protestant fundamentalism tends to focus on individual behaviour, whereas Islamic fundamentalism tends to develop laws for the community.[79]
The most notable trend of Islamic fundamentalism,
and emphasis on praying to God alone.Islamic Protestantism
Parallels have regularly been drawn in the similar attitudes of Islam and Protestantism towards the Scriptures. Some trends in Muslim revival have thus been defined as "
Vitality
Islam and Protestantism share a common vitality in the modern world: "The two most dynamic religious movements in the contemporary world are what can loosely be called popular Protestantism and resurgent Islam", although their approach to civil society is different.[87]
See also
- Islam in England
- Protestantism in Turkey
- Protestantism in Pakistan
- Mormonism and Islam
- Islam and other religions
- Divisions of the world in Islam
- Pallache family
- Protestantism and Judaism
- Schmalkaldic League
- On War Against the Turk
Notes
- ^ a b Goody 2004, p. 42.
- ^ Nițulescu, Daniel (6 May 2016). "The Influence of the Ottoman Threat on the Protestant Reformation (Reformers)". Andrews Research Conference. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
- ^ "Peace of Nuremberg". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
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- ^ a b c d Schmidt 2001, p. 104.
- ^ a b c d e Goffman 2002, p. 111.
- ^ a b Goffman 2002, p. 110.
- ^ a b Goffman 2002, p. 109.
- ISBN 978-3-647-53126-7. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-932688-07-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7656-3222-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-03945-2.
- ^ a b Kupperman 2007, p. 39.
- ^ a b c Kupperman 2007, p. 40.
- ^ a b Burton 2005, p. 62.
- ISBN 978-1-139-46802-2.
- ^ Burton 2005, p. 64.
- ISBN 978-0-543-96087-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-6550-655-9.
- ^ Goody 2004, p. 45.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-09-131051-6.
- ^ a b Schmidt 2001, p. 103.
- ^ a b Parker & Smith 1978, p. 59.
- ^ a b c Parker & Smith 1978, p. 60.
- ^ a b c d Parker & Smith 1978, p. 61.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-674-02430-4.
- ^ Knight, Kevin. "William Reinolds". Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ Verwantschap tussen de Perzische en Nederlandse cultuur Lecture on Persian-Dutch relations by Asghar Seyed Gohrab
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- ^ Tate Gallery exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures". Archived from the originalon 6 July 2011.
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- ^ a b c Nicoll 2002, p. 90.
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- ^ "Online Collections". University of Birmingham.
- ^ a b Kupperman 2007.
- ^ Nicoll 2002, p. 96.
- ^ Kupperman 2007, p. 41.
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The study of Anglo-Turkish piracy in the Mediterranean reveals a fusion of commercial and foreign policy interests embodied in the development of this special relationship
- ISBN 978-1-84520-374-0.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century France complained about a new phenomenon: Anglo-Turkish piracy
- ^ Davis, Grace Maple (1911). Anglo-Turkish Piracy in the Reign of James I. Stanford University.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-57455-6.
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- ISBN 978-0-521-47500-6.
- ^ Goody 2004, p. 49.
- ^ Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003
- ISBN 978-1-4008-2801-2.
- ^ Tencer, Daniel (10 November 2009). "Pat Robertson: Islam isn't a religion; treat Muslims like fascists". Raw Story. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
- ^ Anti-Defamation League. "ADL Condemns Falwell's Anti-Muslim Remarks; Urges Him to Apologize". Archived from the original on 6 June 2008.
- ^ Cooperman, Alan (2010-04-28). "Anti-Muslim Remarks Stir Tempest". The Washington Post.
- ^ The O'Reilly Factor, Fox News Channel. March 17, 2006.
- ^ Pleming, Susan. "Muslims at Pentagon Incensed Over Invitation to Evangelist". Archived from the original on 21 March 2006.
- ^ Murphy, Jarrett (16 April 2003). "Pentagon's Preacher Irks Muslims". CBS News. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
- ^ Starr, Barbara (18 April 2003). "Franklin Graham conducts services at Pentagon". CNN Inside Politics. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
- ^ "Sectarian splits are widening in Islam and lessening in Christianity". The Economist. 27 January 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8386-4076-0.
- ^ "History: The birth and growth of Utrecht". Domkerk, Utrecht. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-08800-1.
- ISBN 978-0-520-04090-8.
- Ibn Taymiyyah, rahimahullaah, said: 'When a Muslim is faced with a problamatic situation, he should seek a verdict from one whom he believes will give him a verdict based upon what Allaah and His Messenger have legislated; whatever school of thought (madhhab) he belongs to. It is not obligatory upon any Muslim to blindly follow a particular individual from the scholars in all that he says. Nor is it obligatory upon any Muslim to blindly follow a particular madhhab from the scholars in all that it necessitates and informs. Rather, every person's saying is taken or left, except that of the Allaah's Messenger sallallaahu alayhi wa sallam.'
- ^ Johnson, Phillip R. "The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy". Article I & XII. Archived from the original on 13 August 2012.
We affirm that the Holy Scriptures are to be received as the authoritative Word of God. We deny that the Scriptures receive their authority from the Church, tradition, or any other human source...We affirm that Scripture in its entirety is inerrant, being free from all falsehood, fraud, or deceit. We deny that Biblical infallibility and inerrancy are limited to spiritual, religious, or redemptive themes, exclusive of assertions in the fields of history and science. We further deny that scientific hypotheses about earth history may properly be used to overturn the teaching of Scripture on creation and the flood.
- ^ says, Rashid Koja (2016-10-28). "Seeking blessings from the relics of the Prophets and the Pious; and visiting the places they visited as a means of seeking nearness to Allah: by Abu Khadeejah". Salafi Sounds. Retrieved 2019-09-26.
- ^ "A Treatise about relics of Jean Calvin (1543)". Musée protestant. Retrieved 2019-09-26.
- ISBN 978-0-19-530503-6.
- ISBN 978-0-415-10862-1.
- ^ Adraoui, Mohamed-Ali. "Salafism and Modernity: Beyond Politics." Understanding Salafism. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. 41-55.
- ISBN 978-0-19-804069-9.
References
- Karabela, Mehmet (2021). Islamic Thought Through Protestant Eyes. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0367549541.
- Burton, Jonathan (2005). Traffic and Turning: Islam and English Drama, 1579-1624. Newark: University of Delaware Press. ISBN 978-0-87413-913-6.
- Goffman, Daniel (2002). The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. New approaches to European history. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45280-9.
- Goody, Jack (2004). Islam in Europe. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-3192-9.
- ISBN 978-0-674-02474-8.
- Parker, Geoffrey; Smith, Lesley M., eds. (1978). The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7100-8865-9.
- Nicoll, Allardyce (2002). Shakespeare Survey With Index 1-10. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52347-9.
- Schmidt, Benjamin (2001). Innocence Abroad: The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570-1670. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80408-0.
External links
- Wittenberg and Mecca issue of Logia: A Journal of Lutheran Theology