Islam in Europe

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Not to be confused with European Islam.
San Marino
  • Slovakia

    • Islam is the second-largest religion in Europe after Christianity.[2] Although the majority of Muslim communities in Western Europe formed recently,[3] there are centuries-old Muslim communities in the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Volga region.[4][5][6][7] The term "Muslim Europe" is used to refer to the Muslim-majority countries in the Balkans and the Caucasus (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Turkey, and Azerbaijan)[8] and parts of countries in Eastern Europe with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria, Montenegro, North Macedonia,[9] and some republics of Russia) that constitute large populations of indigenous European Muslims,[4][5][6][8] although the majority are secular.[4][5][8][10]

    Islam expanded into the

    Cretan Turks, Yörüks, Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Lipka Tatars, Kazakhs, Gajals, and Megleno-Romanians.[7][10][12]

    In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, large numbers of Muslims

    liberal values.[18][19] Such events have also fueled ongoing debates regarding the topics of globalization, multiculturalism, nativism, Islamophobia, relations between Muslims and other religious groups, and populist politics.[13][18][19][20]

    History

    The Muslim population in Europe is extremely diverse with varied histories and origins.

    transcontinental countries of Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan
    are also majority Muslim.

    Western Europe and the Mediterranean Region

    Main article: Early Middle Ages § Middle East
    Further information: Al-Andalus, Emirate of Córdoba, Emirate of Granada, Emirate of Sicily, and Moors
    Court of the Lions, located in the historic citadel of Alhambra in Granada, Spain.
    King James I of Aragon
    (13th century)

    Arab Muslim forays into Europe began shortly after

    Egypt, and North Africa.[23]

    The

    European continent. Arab Muslim forces easily prevailed over the Byzantine army in the crucial battles of Ajnâdayn (634 CE) and Yarmûk (636 CE),[24] and incorporated the former Byzantine province of Syria, pushing to the north and west. At the same time, consolidation of the hold of Islam by the Arab empires in North Africa and the Middle East
    was soon to be followed by incursions into what is now Europe, as Arab and Berber Muslim armies raided and eventually conquered territories leading to the establishment of Muslim-ruled states on the European continent.

    A short-lived invasion of

    Mediterranean islands,[25][28] while in the East, incursions into a much reduced in territory and weakened Byzantine Empire continued. In the 720s and 730s, Arab and Berber Muslim forces fought and raided north of the Pyrenees, well into what is now France, reaching as north as Tours, where they were eventually defeated and repelled by the Christian Franks in 732 to their Iberian and North African territories.[25]

    Norman conquest of the former Emirate of Sicily and North Africa.[29]

    Islam gained its first genuine foothold in continental Europe from 711 onward, with the

    theme.[30] The other was the Emirate of Sicily, which existed on the eponymous island from 831 to 1091; Muslim Arabs and Berbers held onto Sicily and other regions of southern Italy until they were eventually defeated and expelled by the Christian Normans in 1072 to their Iberian and North African territories.[26][27]

    The presence of a Muslim majority in

    Abd al-Rahman II and Muhammad I in the Emirate of Córdoba (between 850 and 859 CE) has been recorded in historical documents and treatises of the time.[37]

    Arab and Berber Muslim troops retreating from Narbonne after the Frankish conquest of Septimania in 759.[25][38] Illustration by Émile Bayard, 1880.

    This coincided with the

    Fraxinet all the way into Switzerland until the 10th century.[39] Muslim forces under the Aghlabids conquered Sicily after a series of expeditions spanning 827–902, and had notably raided Rome in 846. By 1236, practically all that remained of Muslim-ruled Iberia was the southern province of Granada
    .

    Since they are considered "

    Latin- and Greek-speaking European Christian populations, as well as the Jewish communities of Europe, faced religious discrimination and persecution due to being considered religious minorities;[40][33] they were further banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs.[40] Under the Islamic law (sharīʿa), Non-Muslims were obligated to pay the jizya and kharaj taxes,[40][33] together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam.[40] Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam.[40]

    Cultural impact and interaction

    Main articles: Arabization, Islamic Golden Age, and Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
    Further information: Andalusi Arabic, Mozarabic art and architecture, Andalusi Romance, and Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture
    Latin Western Europe.[41]

    Overthrown by the Abbasids, the deposed Umayyad caliph

    Abd al-Rahman II (822–852), Córdoba was becoming one of the biggest and most important cities in Europe. Umayyad Spain had become a centre of the Muslim world that rivaled the Muslim cities of Damascus and Baghdad. "The emirs of Córdoba built palaces reflecting the confidence and vitality of Andalusi Islam, minted coins, brought to Spain luxury items from the East, initiated ambitious projects of irrigation and transformed agriculture, reproduced the style and ceremony of the Abbasid court ruling in the East and welcomed famous scholars, poets and musicians from the rest of the Muslim world".[42] But, the most significant impact of the Emirate was its cultural influence over the Non-Muslim local populations. An "elegant Arabic" became the preferred language of the educated—Muslim, Christian, and Jewish, the readership of Arabic books increased rapidly, and Arabic romance and poetry became extremely popular.[43] The popularity of literary Arabic was just one aspect of the Arabization of the Christian and Jewish populations of the Iberian Peninsula, which led contemporaries to refer to the affected populations as "Mozarabs" (mozárabes in Spanish; moçárabes in Portuguese; derived from the Arabic musta’rib, translated as "like Arabs" or "Arabicized")."[44]

    Arabic-speaking Iberian Christian scholars preserved and studied influential

    La Reconquista in 1492.[54] The Moriscos (Moorish in Spanish) were finally expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Iberia), by Philip III during the Spanish Inquisition
    .

    Polish Tatar nobility. Tatar coats of arms often included motifs related to Islamic culture
    .

    Throughout the 16th to 19th centuries, the

    Azores Islands, and even Iceland.[55]

    For a long time, until the early 18th century, the

    Danubian principalities, Poland–Lithuania, and Russia to enslave people whom they could capture.[59]

    Eastern Europe

    Hungary

    The Böszörmény Muslims formed an early community of Muslims in Hungary. Their biggest settlement was near the town of present-day Orosháza in the central part of the Hungarian Kingdom. At that time this settlement entirely populated by Muslims was probably one of the biggest settlements of the Kingdom. This and several other Muslim settlements were all destroyed and their inhabitants massacred during the 1241 Mongol invasion of Hungary.

    Russia and Ukraine

    Log pod Mangartom Mosque, the only mosque ever built in Slovenia, constructed in the town of Log pod Mangartom during World War I.

    In the mid-7th century AD, following the

    fermented drink which Ibn Fadlan often mentioned as part of their daily fare.[61]

    The Ottoman campaign for territorial expansion in Europe in 1566, Crimean Tatars as vanguard.

    The

    Uzbeg Khan established it as the official religion of the state. Much of the mostly Turkic-speaking population of the Horde, as well as the small Mongol aristocracy, became Islamized (if they were not already Muslim, like the Volga Bulgars) and became known to Russians and Europeans as the Tatars. More than half[62]
    of the European portion of what is now Russia and Ukraine came under the suzerainty of Muslim Tatars and Turks from the 13th to the 15th centuries. The Crimean Khanate became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire in 1475 and subjugated what remained of the Great Horde by 1502. The Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered the Muslim Khanate of Kazan in 1552.

    Belarus and Poland–Lithuania

    Lipka Tatar Muslims of Belarus and Poland–Lithuania.[63][64][65][66][67] The material of their Mosques is wood.[68]

    Balkans

    King's Mosque in Pristina, Kosovo
    Seljuks

    As a result of

    Mongol emir, Nogai Khan. Sari Saltuk became the hero of an epic, as a dervish and ghazi spreading Islam into Europe.[69]

    Ottomans
    Grand Vizier Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha at Buda
    , in the year 1529.

    The

    Peace of Buczacz), by which time most of the Balkans was under Ottoman control. Ottoman expansion in Europe ended with their defeat in the Great Turkish War. In the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), the Ottoman Empire lost most of its conquests in Central Europe. The Crimean Khanate was later annexed by Russia in 1783.[70] Over the centuries, the Ottoman Empire gradually lost almost all of its European territories, until its collapse in 1922, when the former empire was transformed into the nation of Turkey.[citation needed
    ]

    Medieval Bulgaria, particularly the city of Sofia, was the administrative centre of almost all Ottoman possessions in the Balkans, comprising a region known at the time as Rumelia.[71]

    Between 1354 (when the Ottomans crossed into Europe at

    European border of present-day Turkey.[citation needed
    ]

    For most of this period, the Ottoman retreats were accompanied by Muslim refugees from these provinces (in almost all cases converts from the previous subject populations), leaving few Muslim inhabitants in Hungary and Croatia.[citation needed] Bulgaria remained under Ottoman rule until around 1878, and currently its population includes about 131,000 Muslims (2001 Census) (see Pomaks).

    Painting of the bazaar at Athens, Ottoman Greece, early 19th century

    Bosnia was conquered by the Ottomans in 1463, and a large portion of the population converted to Islam in the first 200 years of Ottoman domination. By the time Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia in 1878, the Habsburgs had shed the desire to re-Christianize new provinces. As a result, a sizable Muslim population in Bosnia survived into the 20th century. Albania and the Kosovo area remained under Ottoman rule until 1913. Prior to the Ottoman conquest, the northern Albanians were

    Roman Catholic and the southern Albanians were Christian Orthodox, but by 1913 the majority were Muslim.[citation needed
    ]

    Conversion to Islam

    Further information: Islamization of Albania and Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina
    tribute in blood. Ottoman miniature painting, 1558.[72]

    Apart from the effect of a lengthy period under Ottoman domination, many of the subject population were

    devşirme and jizya.[73][74][75] Rather Arnold explains Islam's spread by quoting 17th-century author Johannes Scheffler who stated:

    Meanwhile, he (i.e. the Turk) wins (converts) by craft more than by force, and snatches away Christ by fraud out of the hearts of men. For the Turk, it is true, at the present time compels no country by violence to apostatise; but he uses other means whereby imperceptibly he roots out Christianity... What then has become of the Christians? They are not expelled from the country, neither are they forced to embrace the Turkish faith: then they must of themselves have been converted into Turks.[76]

    Cultural influences

    Further information: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Reception of Islam in Early Modern Europe

    Islam piqued interest among European scholars, setting off the movement of

    The Book of One Thousand and One Nights
    , disguised himself as a Pashtun and visited both Medina and Mecca during the Hajj, as described in his book A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah.

    Arabic texts
    were introduced.

    Twentieth century

    Muslim emigration to

    Algerian War of Independence.[citation needed] In 1961, the West German Government invited first Gastarbeiters and similar contracts were offered by Switzerland; some of these migrant workers came from majority-Muslim countries such as Turkey.[citation needed] Migrants came to Britain from its majority-Muslim former colonies Pakistan and Bangladesh.[citation needed
    ]

    Current demographics

    Muslim-majority areas in Europe
    Mosque of Twenty-Five Prophets in Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia
    Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
    Great Mosque of Paris
    , built after World War I.

    The exact number of Muslims in Europe is unknown but according to estimates by the

    Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe (excluding Turkey) in 2010 was about 44 million (6% of the total population), including 19 million (3.8% of the population) in the European Union.[14] A 2010 Pew Research Center study reported that 2.7% of the world's Muslim population live in Europe.[77]

    sociologist Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium in 2012.[81] In addition, substantial Turkish communities have been formed in the United Kingdom, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Italy, Liechtenstein, Finland, and Spain. Meanwhile, there are over one million Turks still living in the Balkans (especially in Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Dobruja),[82] and approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks in the Eastern European regions of the Post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine).[83]

    Estimates of the percentage of

    Muslims in Russia (the biggest group of Muslims in Europe) vary from 5[84] to 11.7%,[14] depending on sources. It also depends on if only observant Muslims or all people of Muslim descent are counted.[85] The city of Moscow is home to an estimated 1.5 million Muslims.[86][87][88]

    58.8% of the population in Albania adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. The majority of Albanian Muslims are secular Sunnīs with a significant Bektashi Shīʿa minority.[89] The percentage of Muslims is 93.5% in Kosovo,[90] 39.3% in North Macedonia[91][92] (according to the 2002 Census, 46.5% of the children aged 0–4 were Muslim in Macedonia)[93] and 50.7% in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[94] In transcontinental countries such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, 99% and 93% of the populations from the respective countries are initially registered by the state as Muslims.[95] According to the 2011 census, 20% of the total population in Montenegro are Muslims.[96]

    "

    Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.[77]

    In 2015, Darren E. Sherkat questioned in Foreign Affairs whether some of the Muslim growth projections are accurate as they don't take into account the increasing number of non-religious Muslims.[100] Quantitative research is lacking, but he believes the European trend mirrors that from North America: statistical data from the General Social Survey in the United States show that 32% of those raised Muslim no longer embrace Islam in adulthood, and 18% hold no religious identification[100] (see also: Ex-Muslims).

    A survey conducted by Pew Research Center in 2016 found that Muslims make up 4.9% of all Europe's population.[101] According to the same study, conversion does not add significantly to the growth of the Muslim population in Europe, with roughly 160,000 more people leaving Islam than converting into Islam between 2010 and 2016.[101]

    Country Estimated % of Muslims among total population in 2016[101]
    Cyprus 25.4
    Bulgaria 11.1
    France 8.8
    Sweden 8.1
    Belgium 7.6
    Netherlands 7.1
    Austria 6.9
    United Kingdom 6.3
    Germany 6.1
    Switzerland 6.1
    Norway 5.7
    Greece 5.7
    Denmark 5.4
    Italy 4.8
    Slovenia 3.8
    Luxembourg 3.2
    Finland 2.7
    Spain 2.6
    Croatia 1.6
    Ireland 1.4

    Projections

    migration crisis
    .)

    A

    fertility rate in Europe would drop from 2.2 in 2010 to 2.0 in 2030. On the other hand, the non-Muslim fertility rate in Europe would increase from 1.5 in 2010 to 1.6 in 2030.[14] Another Pew study published in 2017 projected that in 2050 Muslims will make 7.4% (if all migration into Europe were to immediately and permanently stop - a "zero migration" scenario) up to 14% (under a "high" migration scenario) of Europe's population.[102] Data from the 2000s for the rates of growth of Islam in Europe showed that the growing number of Muslims was due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.[103]

    In 2017, Pew projected that the Muslim population of Europe would reach a level between 7% and 14% by 2050. The projections depend on the level of migration. With no net migration, the projected level was 7%; with high migration, it was 14%. The projections varied greatly by country. Under the high migration scenario, the highest projected level of any historically non-Muslim country was 30% in Sweden. By contrast, Poland was projected to remain below 1%.[104]

    In 2006, the conservative Christian historian Philip Jenkins, in an article for the Foreign Policy Research Institute thinktank, wrote that by 2100, a Muslim population of about 25% of Europe's population was "probable"; Jenkins stated this figure did not take account of growing birthrates amongst Europe's immigrant Christians, but did not give details of his methodology.[105] in 2010, Eric Kaufmann, professor of politics at Birkbeck, University of London said that "In our projections for Western Europe by 2050 we are looking at a range of 10-15 per cent Muslim population for most of the high immigration countries – Germany, France, the UK";[106] he argued that Islam was expanding, not because of conversion to Islam, but primarily due to the religion's "pro-natal" orientation, where Muslims tend to have more children.[107] Other analysts are skeptical about the accuracy of the claimed Muslim population growth, stating that because many European countries do not ask a person's religion on official forms or in censuses, it has been difficult to obtain accurate estimates, and arguing that there has been a decrease in Muslim fertility rates in Morocco, the Netherlands, and Turkey.[108]

    Country Muslims (official) Muslims (estimation) % of total population % of World Muslim population Community origin
    (predominant)
    Albania Albania 1,646,128 2,601,000 (Pew 2011) 58.79 (official);[109] 82.1 (Pew 2011) 0.1 Indigenous (Albanians)
    Andorra Andorra N/A < 1,000 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 < 0.1 Immigrant
    Austria Austria N/A 700,000 (2017 study)[110] 8[110] < 0.1 Immigrant
    Belarus Belarus N/A 19,000 (Pew 2011) 0.2 < 0.1 Indigenous (Lipka Tatars) and Immigrant
    Belgium Belgium N/A 781,887 (2015 est.)[111] 5.9[112]–7[111] < 0.1 Immigrant
    Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina 1,790,454 (2013 census) 1,564,000 (Pew 2011) 50.7;[113] 41.6 (Pew 2011) 0.1 Indigenous (Bosniaks, Romani, Croats, Turks)
    Bulgaria Bulgaria 577,000 (2011 census)[114] 1,002,000 (Pew 2011) 7.8 (official); 13.4 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Indigenous (
    Turks
    )
    Croatia Croatia N/A 56,000 (Pew 2011) 1.3 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Indigenous (Bosniaks, Croats) and Immigrant
    Cyprus Cyprus N/A 200,000 (Pew 2011) 22.7 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Indigenous (
    Turks
    )
    Czech Republic Czech Republic N/A 4,000 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 < 0.1 Immigrant
    Denmark Denmark N/A 226,000 (Pew 2011) 4.1 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Estonia Estonia 1,508 2,000 0.1 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Faroe Islands Faroe Islands N/A < 1,000 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 < 0.1 Immigrant
    Finland Finland N/A 42,000 (Pew 2011) 0.8 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Immigrant
    France France N/A 5,720,000[115] 7.5 (Pew 2011) 0.3 Immigrant
    Germany Germany N/A 5,300,000-5,600,000 (BAMF 2021)[116] 4,119,000 (Pew 2011); 4,700,000 (CIA)[117] 5 (Pew 2011) 0.2 Immigrant
    Greece Greece N/A 527,000 (Pew 2011) 4.7 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Indigenous (Muslim minority of Greece) and Immigrant
    Hungary Hungary 5,579[118] 25,000 (Pew 2011) 0.3 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Indigenous (Turks) and Immigrant
    Iceland Iceland 770[119] < 1,000 (Pew 2011) 0.2[119] <0.1 Immigrant
    Ireland
    		 70,158 (2016 census) 43,000 (Pew 2011) 1.3[120] <0.1 Immigrant
    Italy Italy N/A 1,583,000 (Pew 2011) 2.3;[121] 2.6 (Pew 2011) 0.1 Immigrant
    Kosovo Kosovo N/A 1,584,000 (CIA);[122] 2,104,000 (Pew 2011) 95.6 0.1 Indigenous (Albanians, Bosniaks, Gorani, Turks)
    Latvia Latvia N/A 2,000 (Pew 2011) 0.1 <0.1 Immigrant
    Liechtenstein Liechtenstein N/A 2,000 (Pew 2011) 4.8 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Immigrant
    Lithuania Lithuania N/A 3,000 (Pew 2011) 0.1 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Indigenous (Lipka Tatars)
    Luxembourg Luxembourg N/A 11,000 (Pew 2011) 2.3 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Immigrant
    Malta Malta N/A 1,000 (Pew 2011) 0.3 (Pew 2011) <0.1 Immigrant
    Moldova Moldova N/A 15,000 (Pew 2011) 0.4 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Monaco Monaco N/A < 1,000 (Pew 2011) 0.5 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Montenegro Montenegro 118,477 (2011)[123] 116,000 (Pew 2011) 19.11[123] < 0.1 Indigenous (Bosniaks, Albanians, "Muslims")
    Netherlands Netherlands N/A 914,000 (Pew 2011) 5[124] – 6[112] 0.1 Immigrant
    North Macedonia North Macedonia 590,878 (2021) 713,000 (Pew 2011) 32[125][126] <0.1 Indigenous (
    Torbeši
    )
    Norway Norway N/A 106,700–194,000 (Brunborg & Østby 2011);[127] 2–4[127] < 0.1 Immigrant
    Poland Poland N/A 20,000 (Pew 2011) 0.1 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Indigenous (Lipka Tatars) and Immigrant
    Portugal Portugal N/A 65,000 (Pew 2011) 0.6 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Romania Romania N/A 73,000 (Pew 2011) 0.3 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Indigenous (
    Tatars
    )
    Russia Russia N/A 16,379,000 (Pew 2011) 11.7 (Pew 2011); 10−15 (CIA)[128] 1.0 Indigenous
    San Marino San Marino N/A < 1,000 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 < 0.1 Immigrant
    Serbia Serbia 278,212 (2022) 280,000 (Pew 2011) 4.2 (Census 2022) < 0.1 Indigenous (Bosniaks, "Muslims", Romani, Albanians, Gorani, Serbs)
    Slovakia Slovakia 10,866 4,000 (Pew 2011) 0.1 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Slovenia Slovenia 73,568 49,000 (Pew 2011) 2.4 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant and Indigenous
    Spain Spain 1,887,906 1,021,000 (Pew 2011) 4.1[129] 0.1 Immigrant
    Sweden Sweden N/A 450,000–500,000 (2009 DRL);[130] 451,000 (Pew 2011) 5[130] < 0.1 Immigrant
    Switzerland Switzerland N/A 433,000 5.7 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Immigrant
    Ukraine Ukraine N/A 393,000 (Pew 2011) 0.9 (Pew 2011) < 0.1 Indigenous (Crimean Tatars)[131]
    United Kingdom United Kingdom 3,106,368 2,869,000 (Pew 2011) 4.6 (Pew 2011) 0.2 Immigrant
    Vatican City

    Vatican City

    		 0 0

    (Pew 2011)

    		0 (Pew 2011) 0 None

    Religiosity

    According to an article published on the German public broadcaster

    Western-European countries, in a trend which continues across generations. In the United Kingdom, 64% identify as "highly religious", followed by 42% in Austria, 33% in France, and 26% in Switzerland.[132]

    A 2005 survey published by the

    Université Libre de Bruxelles estimated that only 10% of the Muslim population in Belgium are "practicing Muslims".[133] In 2009, only 24% of Muslims in the Netherlands attended mosque once a week according to another survey.[134]

    According to the same 2004 survey, they found that the importance of Islam in the lives of Dutch Muslims, particularly of second-generation immigrants was decreasing. According to a survey, only 33% of French Muslims who were interviewed said they were religious believers. That figure is the same as that obtained by the INED/INSEE survey in October 2010.[135]

    Society

    Islam in the Balkans, density of mosques and major highways highlighting the major works of Yugoslavia's Brotherhood and Unity motorway.
    Mosque of Rome, the largest in the European Union
    The East London Mosque was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.[136]

    Islamic organizations

    See also: Category:Islamic organizations in Europe

    In Europe, a variety of Islamic organizations serve to represent the diverse interests of Muslim communities and promote Islamic teachings, encourage Interfaith harmony and cultural contributions.

    The Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe (FIOE) an umbrella organization that represents more than 30 Muslim organizations in Europe. Its mission is to represent the interests of Muslims, and to foster dialogue and cooperation between Muslims and non-Muslims in Europe.[137] FIOE subsequently created the European Council for Fatwa and Research, a pan European Muslim Brotherhood organisation which provides guidance to Muslims in Europe.[137] The Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe (MCCE) is a representative body of European citizens of Muslim faith before the EU administration for advice, representation and intra-European collaboration.[138] In 1997, the MCCE has joined the initiative "A Soul for Europe" in the framework of "Dialogue with religions, churches and humanism" as part of the Group of Policy Advisors in the European Commission.[139]

    Mosques

    See also: List of mosques in Europe

    Islamic dress

    Main article:
    Islamic dress in Europe
    See also: Hijab

    In the context of Islamic dress in Europe, there are diverse perspectives regarding the wearing of face-covering veils and other traditional clothing among Muslim communities. Various European countries have implemented laws and regulations that pertain to religious clothing, including face-covering veils such as the burka or the hijab. These laws have generated considerable debate and criticism within and outside Muslim communities.[140][141][142] Those who argue for the restrictions say they are in favor of security, or secularism. However, critics of such laws express concerns about infringements on individual freedom and religious expression, arguing that these restrictions have unintended consequences, including isolating and stigmatizing Muslim communities.[143][144][145] Additionally, it has been noted by some observers that these dress bans have raised concerns about fueling Islamophobia across Europe.[146][147][148]

    The prevailing perspective supports the right of Muslim women to wear religious clothing that does not cover their face, with a smaller proportion advocating for restrictions on all forms of religious clothing. On a regional average, around 25% hold a more permissive view, asserting that Muslim women should be allowed to wear the religious clothing of their choice according to Pew Research Center.[149]

    The stance on clothing restrictions is not the same in every country. For example, about six-in-ten Portuguese adults who hold positive feelings toward Muslims support no restrictions on religious clothing. Overall, most people in Western Europe say they accept religious minorities – Muslims included. For example, a median of 66% of non-Muslim adults in the region say they would accept a Muslim as a member of their family, according to a separate question in a survey.[150]

    Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism

    Main article: Islamic terrorism in Europe
    Further information: Bosnian mujahideen and Mujahideen in Chechnya

    A 2013 study conducted by

    Muslims in Europe. The study conducted a poll among Turkish immigrants to six European countries: Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, and Sweden. In the first four countries also Moroccan immigrants were interviewed.[151] Fundamentalism was defined as: the belief that believers should return to the eternal and unchangeable rules laid down in the past; that these rules allow only one interpretation and are binding for all believers; and that religious rules have priority over secular laws. Two thirds of Muslims the majority responded that religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam.[152] Of the respondents, 44% agreed to all three statements. Almost 60% responded that Muslims should return to the roots of Islam, 75% thought there was only one possible interpretation of the Quran.[151]

    The conclusion was that religious fundamentalism is much more prevalent among European Muslims than among Christian natives. Perceived discrimination is a marginal predictor of religious fundamentalism.[151] The perception that Western governments are inherently hostile towards Islam as a source of identity is prevailing among some European Muslims. However, a recent study shows that this perception significantly declined after the emergence of ISIS, particularly among the youth, and highly educated European Muslims.[153] The difference between countries defies a "reactive religious fundamentalism", where fundamentalism is viewed as a reaction against lacking rights and privileges for Muslims. Instead, it was found that Belgium which has comparatively generous policies towards Muslims and immigrants in general also had a relatively high level of fundamentalism. France and Germany which have restrictive policies had lower levels of fundamentalism.[151]

    In 2017, the EU Counter-terrorism Coordinator

    list of security threats belong to Islamist movements.[155] In the United Kingdom, authorities estimate that 23000 jihadists reside in the country, of which about 3000 are actively monitored.[156] In 2017, German authorities estimated that there were more than 10000 militant salafists in the country.[157] European Muslims have also been criticized for new antisemitism.[158]

    Attitudes towards Muslims

    Part of a series on
    Islamophobia
    No mosque
    Issues
    Status by country
    Examples
    Attacks on mosques:

    Genocide:

    Massacres, torture, expulsion:

    Other incidents:

    Media
    Opposition
    See also: Islamophobia and Criticism of Islam

    The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe.

    Unfavorable views of Muslims, 2019[159]
    Country Percent
    Slovakia
     
    		 77%
    Poland
     
    		 66%
    Czech Republic
     
    		 64%
    Hungary
     
    		 58%
    Greece
     
    		 57%
    Lithuania
     
    		 56%
    Italy
     
    		 55%
    Spain
     
    		 42%
    Sweden
     
    		 28%
    Netherlands
     
    		 28%
    Germany
     
    		 24%
    France
     
    		 22%
    Ukraine
     
    		 21%
    Russia
     
    		 19%
    United Kingdom
     
    		 18%

    The

    European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia reports that the Muslim population tends to suffer Islamophobia all over Europe, although the perceptions and views of Muslims may vary.[160]

    In 2005 according to the Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau annual report, half the Dutch population and half the Moroccan and Turkish minorities stated that the Western lifestyle cannot be reconciled with that of Muslims.[161]

    A 2015 poll by the Polish Centre for Public Opinion Research found that 44% of Poles have a negative attitude towards Muslims, with only 23% having a positive attitude towards them. Furthermore, a majority agreed with statements like "Muslims are intolerant of customs and values other than their own." (64% agreed, 12% disagreed), "Muslims living in Western European countries generally do not acquire customs and values that are characteristic for the majority of the population of that country." (63% agreed, 14% disagreed), "Islam encourages violence more than other religions." (51% agreed, 24% disagreed).[162]

    A February 2017 poll of 10,000 people in 10 European countries by Chatham House found on average a majority were opposed to further Muslim immigration, with opposition especially pronounced in Austria, Poland, Hungary, France and Belgium. Of the respondents, 55% were opposed, 20% offered no opinion and 25% were in favour of further immigration from Muslim-majority countries. The authors of the study add that these countries, except Poland, had in the preceding years suffered jihadist terror attacks or been at the centre of a refugee crisis. They also mention that in most of the polled countries the radical right has political influence.[163]

    According to a study in 2018 by Leipzig University, 56% of Germans sometimes thought the many Muslims made them feel like strangers in their own country, up from 43% in 2014. In 2018, 44% thought immigration by Muslims should be banned, up from 37% in 2014.[164]

    Based off U.S. State Department records in 2013, there were about 226 Anti-Muslim attacks in France, which was more than an 11% increase from the year previous. Examples of the attacks included a bomb in an Arab restaurant, and grenades thrown at mosques. In more recent years, the aftermath of terrorist attacks in France have led to huge amounts of anti-Islamic rhetoric and increasing amounts of hate crimes.[165] The French government has also acted upon the Muslim population of France in recent years, with the lower house passing an anti-radicalism bill and increasing checks in places of worship.[166][167][168]

    As of October 2023, Slovakia is the only EU member state that does not have a mosque due legislation that has barred Islam from gaining state recognition.[169]

    Employment

    According to a

    Muslims in Europe generally have higher levels of unemployment which is to a great part caused by the lack of language skills, the lack of inter-ethnic social ties and a traditional view of gender roles where women are not to work outside the home. Discrimination from employers caused a small part of the unemployment.[170]

    See also

    Islam by country
    World percentage of Muslims by country
    Africa
    Asia
    Americas
    Europe
    Oceania
     Islam portal

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    Bibliography

    Further reading

    External links
    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_Europe&oldid=1219655382"