Islam in India

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Islam in India
History Sheikh Ubaidullah Malik bin Deenar Cheraman Perumal Cheraman Juma Masjid Ghaznavids Delhi Sultanate Bahmani Sultanate Bengal Sultanate Gujarat Sultanate Mughal Empire Deccan sultanates Kunhali Marakkar I Ali Raja Kingdom of Mysore Malabar Rebellion
Architecture Mughal Indo-Islamic Indo-Saracenic Sharqi
Major figures Sheikh Ubaidullah Malik bin Deenar Moinuddin Chishti Bakhtiar Kaki Nizamuddin Auliya Amir Khusrow Sarkar Waris Pak Zainuddin Makhdoom II Ahmad Raza Khan Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Syed Ahmad Khan Panakkad Shihab Thangal E. K. Aboobacker Musliyar K. Ali Kutty Musliyar
Famous Families and ethnicities Islam in Uttar Pradesh Bengali Muslims Kashmiri Muslims Rajasthani Muslims Gujarati Muslims Konkani Muslims Mappilas (Kerala) Hyderabadi Muslims Khoja Dawoodi Bohras Memons Vora Patel Bihari Muslims Oriya Muslims Tamil Muslims Dakhini Muslims Nawayath Bearys The Saits Meo Sunni Bohras Iraqi Biradari Arabs (India) Kayamkhani Goan Muslims Chaush Siddi Shershahabadia
Religious jurisprudence Hanafi Shafi`i Hanbali Maliki
Schools of thought Barelwi Deobandi Salafi
Mosques in India List of mosques in India
Universities Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College Jamia Nizamia Aliah University Darul Huda Islamic University Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya Jamiatur Raza Al-Jame-atul-Islamia Al Jamiatul Ashrafia Darul Uloom Deoband Manzar-e-Islam Ma'din Academy Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College
Influential bodies Muslim Jamaat All India Muslim Personal Law Board Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind All India Ulema & Mashaikh Board Ahle Sunnat Movement in South Asia Raza Academy All India Shia Personal Law Board Indian Muslim nationalism Muslim chronicles for Indian history All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen Samastha Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989) Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present) Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen
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Islam is India's

Many of these ulema also believed that it is best to marry within one's own caste. The practice of endogamous marriage in one's caste is strictly observed in India.[23]^[24] In two of the three genetic studies referenced here, in which is described that samples were taken from several regions of India's Muslim communities, it was again found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated, with some having minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the Arabian peninsula.^[16]

Research on the comparison of Y chromosomes of Indian Muslims with other Indian groups was published in 2005.^[16][17] In this study 124 Sunnis and 154 Shias of Uttar Pradesh were randomly selected for their genetic evaluation. Other than Muslims, Hindu higher and middle caste group members were also selected for the genetic analysis. Out of 1021 samples in this study, only 17 samples showed E haplogroup and all of them were Shias. The very minor increased frequency however, does place these Shias, solely with regards to their haplogroups, closer to Iraqis, Turks and Palestinians.^[16][17]

Early history of Islam in India

Trade relations have existed between Arabia and the

Historical evidence shows that Arabs and Muslims interacted with Indians from the early days of Islam and possibly before the arrival of Islam in Arab regions. Arab traders transmitted the numeral system developed by Indians to the Middle East and Europe.

Many Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic as early as the 8th century. George Saliba in his book "Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance", writes that "some major Sanskrit texts began to be translated during the reign of the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur (r. 754–775), if not before; some texts on logic even before that, and it has been generally accepted that the Persian and Sanskrit texts, few as they were, were indeed the first to be translated."^[42]

Commercial intercourse between Arabia and India had gone on from time immemorial, with for example the sale of dates and aromatic herbs by Arabs traders who came to Indian shores every spring with the advent of the monsoon breeze. People living on the western coast of India were as familiar with the annual coming of Arab traders as they were with the flocks of monsoon birds; they were as ancient a phenomenon as the monsoon itself. However, whereas monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of few months, not all traders returned to their homes in the desert; many married Indian women and settled in India.^[43]

The advent of Muhammad (569–632 CE) changed the idolatrous and easy-going Arabs into a nation unified by faith and fired with zeal to spread the gospel of Islam. The merchant seamen who brought dates year after year now brought a new faith with them. The new faith was well received by South India. Muslims were allowed to build mosques, intermarry with Indian women, and very soon an Indian-Arabian community came into being. Early in the 9th century, Muslim missionaries gained a notable convert in the person of the King of Malabar.^[43]

According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh(currently province of Pakistan) and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a companion of Muhammad, who traveled across Sind to Makran in the year 649 CE and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported Ali, and died in the Battle of the Camel alongside Sindhi Jats.^[44] He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of Ali ibn Abu Talib have survived, as reported in Chachnama.^[45][a]

During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.

In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,

• 
  Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II with sons Mirza Jawan Bakht & Mirza Shah Abbas
• 
  Durbar Procession of Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II in British India

Role in the Indian independence movement

The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is documented in the history of India's struggle for independence.

I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to be a nation apart from the parent stock.

— Mahatma Gandhi, opposing the division of India on the basis of religion in 1944.^[81]

The

The partition of India was set forth in the Act and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire and the end of the British Raj. It resulted in a struggle between the newly constituted states of India and Pakistan and displaced up to 12.5 million people with estimates of loss of life varying from several hundred thousand to a million (most estimates of the numbers of people who crossed the boundaries between India and Pakistan in 1947 range between 10 and 12 million).^[82] The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of mutual hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to this day.

The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in Karachi, at the time the capital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last British Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, could attend both the ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony in Delhi. Thus, Pakistan's Independence Day is celebrated on 14 August and India's on 15 August.

After Partition of India in 1947, two-thirds of the Muslims resided in Pakistan (both east and West Pakistan) but a third resided in India.^[83] Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East) from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East).^[84] Some critics allege that British haste in the partition process increased the violence that followed.^[85] Because independence was declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.^[86]

However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.^[87] Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.^[87] Law and order had broken down many times before Partition with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,^[87] perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.^[88] The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.^[89]

Demographics

With around 204 million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is the world's third-largest^[90][91][92] and the world's largest Muslim-minority population.^[93] India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population.^[90][94] According to Pew Research Center, there can be 213 million Muslims in 2020, India's 15% population.^[95][96] Indian Muslim have a fertility rate of 2.36, the highest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation.^[97] While Government of India at Lok Sabha have estimated the Muslim population at 19.75 to 20 crore for 2023 year, out of 138.8 to 140.0 crore total population, thus constituting around (14.22%–14.28%) of the nation's population respectively.^{[98][99][100][101][102][103]}

Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020^{[91][104][90][105][106][107]}

Country	Muslim Population	Percentage of Total Muslim Population
Indonesia	231,070,000	12.2%
Pakistan	233,046,950	11.2%
India	207,000,000	10.9%
Bangladesh	153,700,000	9.20%
Nigeria	110,263,500	5.8%

Muslims represent a majority of the local population in Lakshadweep (96.2%) and Jammu and Kashmir (68.3%). The largest concentration – about 47% of all Muslims in India, live in the three states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Bihar. High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, and Uttarakhand.^[108]

Percentage by states

As of 2021^[update], Muslims comprise the majority of the population in the only Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir and in a Union territory Lakshadweep.^[109] In 110 minority-concentrated districts, at least a fifth of the population are Muslim.^[110]

Population growth rate

After India's independence and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the Muslim population in India declined from 42,400,000 in 1941 to 35,400,000 in the 1951 census, due to the Partition of India.^[111] The Pakistan Census, 1951 identified the number of displaced persons in the country at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims refugees who had entered Pakistan from India.^[112][113] Around 35 million Muslims stayed back after Partition as Jawaharlal Nehru (then the Prime Minister of India) have ensured the confidence that they would be treated fairly in this democratic nation.^[114][115]

In

India is the home of some 40,000 illegal

Muslims in India have a much higher total fertility rate (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country.^[133] Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 9.8% in 1951 to 14.2% by 2011.^[134] However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims.^[135] The Sachar Committee Report shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages.^[136] The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100.^[137] Pew Research Center have projected that India will have 310 million Muslims by 2050, out of total 1.668 billion people, thus constituting 18.4% of the country's population.^{[138][139][140][141][142][143][144]} United Nations have projected India's future population. It will rise to 170.53 crore by 2050, and then it will decline to 165.97 crore by 2100 year respectively. Muslim population will rise to minimum 282.14 million (forming 17% of the country's population) to maximum 348.53 million (forming 21% of the country's population) by 2100.^{[145][146][147][148][149][150]}

Religiosity

On 29 June 2021, Pew Research Center reports on Religiosity have been published, where they completed 29,999 face-to-face interviews with non-institutionalized adults ages 18 and older living in 26 states and three union territories across India. They Interviewed 3,336 Muslims and found that 79% of those interviewes believed in the existence of God with absolute certainty, 12% believes in the existence of God with less certainty and 6% of the Indian Muslims have declared themselves as

CSDS study reports, have found that Indian Muslims have become ‘less religious’ since 2016. In that same year, the study founds that 97 per cent of Muslim respondents have said that they prayed regularly. However, in 2021, it was found that only 86 per cent of Muslim youth prayed regularly which is an absolute decline of 11 percentage points from the last five years respectively.[154]

Social and economic reasons behind population growth^[155]

According to sociologists Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic conditions rather than religious determinism is the main reason for higher Muslim birthrates. Indian Muslims are poorer and less educated compared to their Hindu counterparts.^[157] Noted Indian sociologist, B.K. Prasad, argues that since India's Muslim population is more urban compared to their Hindu counterparts, infant mortality rates among Muslims is about 12% lower than those among Hindus.^[158]

However, other sociologists point out that religious factors can explain high Muslim birthrates. Surveys indicate that Muslims in India have been relatively less willing to adopt family planning measures and that Muslim women have a larger fertility period since they get married at a much younger age compared to Hindu women.^[159]

On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures.^[160] A study conducted by K.C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate.^[161] According to Paul Kurtz, Muslims in India are much more resistant to modern contraception than are Hindus and, as a consequence, the decline in fertility rate among Hindu women is much higher compared to that of Muslim women.^[162][163]

The National Family and Health survey conducted in 1998–99 highlighted that Indian Muslim couples consider a substantially higher number of children to be ideal for a family as compared to Hindu couples in India.^[164] The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims. According to a district wise fertility study by Saswata Ghosh, Muslim TFR (total fertility rate) is closer to that of the Hindu community in most southern states. Also TFR tends to be high for both communities in Northern states such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This study was based on the last census of the country from 2011.^[165]

Denominations

There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, which is being followed by 130 million people,^[8][166] While a substantial minority (over 13%) belong to the Shia branch, which is being followed by 40 million people respectively.^[167][8] There are also tiny minorities of Ahmadiyya and Quranists across the country numbering 1 million each.

Sunni

Indian Sunnis largely follow the

The majority of Indian Sunnis follow the

Dā'ī Zoeb appointed Maulai Yaqoob (after the death of Maulai Abdullah), who was the second Walī al-Hind of the

One Dai succeeded another until the 23rd Dai in Yemen. In India also Wali-ul-Hind were appointed by them one after another until Wali-ul-Hind Moulai Qasim Khan bin Hasan (11th and last Wali-ul-Hind, d. 950 AH, Ahmedabad).

Due to persecution by the local

Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee was a Bohra and 20th century Islamic scholar from India who promoted modernization and liberalization of Islam through his writings. He argued that with changing time modern reforms in Islam are necessary without compromising on basic "spirit of Islam".^{[188][189][190]}

Khojas

The Khojas are a group of diverse people who converted to

The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by

Non-sectarian Muslims who reject the authority of hadith, known as Quranists, Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in India. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the Ahle Hadith movement whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith. Notable Indian Quranists include Chiragh Ali, Aslam Jairajpuri, Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din, and Abdullah Chakralawi.^[204]

Islamic traditions in India

The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups, especially in the city of Lucknow.[205]

Society and culture

Religious administration

The religious administration of each state is headed by the Mufti of the State under the supervision of the Grand Mufti of India, the most senior, most influential religious authority and spiritual leader of Muslims in India. The system is executed in India from the Mughal period.^{[206][207][208][209]}

Muslim institutes

There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims in India.

Modern universities and institutes

• Al-Ameen Educational Society
• Aliah University
• Aligarh Muslim University
• Jamia Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya
• Ma'dinu Ssaquafathil Islamiyya
• B. S. Abdur Rahman University
• Darul Huda Islamic University
• Darul Uloom Deoband
• Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama
• Farook College, Kozhikode
• Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
• Integral University
• Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli
• Hamdard University, Delhi
• Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
• M.S.S. Wakf Board College, Madurai (The only college in India run by a State Wakf Board)
• Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College, Pulikkal, Malappuram
• Maulana Azad National Urdu University Hyderabad
• Maulana Mazharul Haque Arabic and Persian University Patna Bihar
• Aurangabad
• Muslim Educational Association of Southern India
• Muslim Educational Society, Kerala
• National College of Engineering
  , Tirunelveli
• Osmania University, Hyderabad
• Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College, Tirurangadi
• Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, Kollam
• Karim City College, Jamshedpur

Traditional Islamic universities

• Al Jamea tus Saifiyah
  , Bohra
• Al Jamiatul Ashrafia, Barelvi
• Jamia Darussalam, Oomerabad
• Al-Jame-atul-Islamia, Uttar Pradesh
• Hyderabad
• Manzar-e-Islam, Bareilly
• Raza Academy
• Sunni Cultural Center, Karanthur
  , Kerala

Leadership and organisations

• The
  Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat at Bareilly Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India.^[210]
• Indian Shia Muslims form a substantial minority within the Muslim community of India comprising between 25 and 31% of total Muslim population in an estimation done during mid-2005 to 2006 of the then Indian Muslim population of 157 million. Sources like The Times of India and DNA reported Indian Shia population during that period between 40,000,000^[175][176] to 50,000,000^[177] of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.
• The Deobandi movement, another section of the Sunni Muslim population, originate from the Darul Uloom Deoband, an influential religious seminary in the district of Saharanpur of Uttar Pradesh. The Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, became a political mouthpiece for the Darul Uloom.^[211]
• The Jamaat-e-Islami Hind, founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an Islamic government and has been active in promoting education, social service and ecumenical outreach to the community.^[212]

Caste system among Indian Muslims

Although Islam does not recognize any castes, the caste system among South Asian Muslims refers to units of social stratification that have developed among Muslims in South Asia.^[213]

Stratification

In some parts of South Asia, the Muslims are divided as Ashrafs and Ajlafs.^[214][215] Ashrafs claim to be derived from their foreign ancestry.^[21][22] They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.^[216][22]

Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Sayyid] be given a higher social status than the others.^[217] His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam.^[217] His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over Sharia law whenever they were in conflict.^[217] Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]".^[217] He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.^[20] Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste.^[217]

In addition to the ashraf/ajlaf divide, there is also the arzal caste among Muslims,^[218] who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables.^[219] The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.^[219][220] They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil.^[221]

Some South Asian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according to qaums.^[222] Studies of Bengali Muslims in India indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status.^[22] Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.

Some of the upper and middle caste Muslim communities include

The Sachar Committee's report commissioned by the government of India and released in 2006, documents the continued stratification in Muslim society.

Interaction and mobility

Data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.

Criticism

Some Muslim scholars have tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism.^[20]

While some scholars theorize that Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus,^[20][225] Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar argued otherwise, arguing the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".^[219] He was critical of Ashraf antipathy towards the Ajlaf and Arzal and attempts to palliate sectarian divisions. He condemned the Indian Muslim community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries such as Turkey did during the early decades of the twentieth century.^[219]

Segregation

Segregation of Indian Muslims from other communities began in the mid-1970s when the first communal riots occurred. This was heightened after the 1989 Bhagalpur violence in Bihar and became a trend after the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992. Soon several major cities developed ghettos, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into.^[226] This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the 2002 Gujarat riots, several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.^{[227][228][229][230]} This kind of ghettoisation can be seen in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and many cities of Gujarat where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods.

In places like Gujarat, riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large-scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, the Juhapura area of Ahmadabad has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status.^[231]

An increase in ghetto living has also shown a strengthening of stereotyping due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. Secularism in India is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.^{[232][233][234]}

Consanguineous marriages

The

• 
  The Taj Mahal in Agra is one of India's most iconic monuments.
• 
  A rebuilt structure of the old Cheraman Juma Mosque, Kerala, which is often considered as the first Masjid of India
• 
  Asafi Imambargah, also known as Bara Imambara at Lucknow
• 
  The Humayun's Tomb in Delhi
• 
  Bijapur, Karnataka, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia

  .
• 
  Bahauddin Makbara, mausoleum of the Wazir of Junagadh, Gujarat
• 
  400-year-old Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad. (Photo: 1885)
• 
  The Asafi Mosque within the Asafi Imambargah Complex at Lucknow
• 
  The Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow
• 
  Gole-Gumma, Mousoleum of Nawab Wahab Khan, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh
• 
  Charminar, the most famous of the monuments of Hyderabad
• 
  Red Fort, Delhi
• 
  Jama Masjid, Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India
• 
  Sir Syed Mosque, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order, i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate, i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilisations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.

Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.

Mosques

There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including the Muslim world.^[236] The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A mihrab indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the minbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.

Tombs and Mausoleum

The tomb or maqbara could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have a mihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.

Styles of Islamic architecture in India

Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191–1557 CE); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Ahmedabad, Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal architecture style (1526–1707 CE).^[237]

Law, politics, and government

Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance and waqf properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law,^[238] which was developed during British rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments.^[239][240] Indian Muslim personal law is not developed as a Sharia law but as an interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part of common law. The Supreme Court of India has ruled that Sharia or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters.^[241]

Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."

Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan is an Indian Muslim women's organisation in India. It released a draft on 23 June 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act', recommending that polygamy be made illegal in the Muslim Personal Law of India.^[245]

Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 was proposed for the changes in the citizenship and immigration norms of the country by relaxing the requirements for Indian citizenship. The applicability of the amendments are debated in news as it is on religious lines (excluding Muslims).^{[246][247][248]}

India's Constitution and Parliament have protected the rights of Muslims but, according to some sources,^{[249][250][251]} there has been a growth in a 'climate of fear' and 'targeting of dissenters' under the Bharatiya Janata Party and Modi ministry, affecting the feelings of security and tolerance amongst Indian Muslims. However, these allegations are not universally supported.^[252]

Active Muslim political parties

• Uttarpradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka.^[253]
• Indian Union Muslim League (IUML), led by E. Ahamed active in Kerala.^[254]
• All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF), led by Badruddin Ajmal active in Assam state.^[255]
• Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference (JKPC), founded by Abdul Ghani Lone and Molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari.^[256][257] Led by Sajjad Lone.^[258] It is active in Jammu and Kashmir.
• National Conference (NC) main party of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) main party of Jammu and Kashmir
  .
• Apni Party (JKAP) a newly formed party of Jammu and Kashmir
• Peace Party of India of Mohamed Ayub

Muslims in government

India has seen three Muslim presidents and many

The government of India subsidized the cost of the airfare for Indian Hajj pilgrims until it was totally phased out in 2018.^[266] The decision to end the subsidy was in order to comply with a Supreme Court of India decision of 2011. Starting in 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person was decreased year on year and ended completely by 2018.^[267][268] Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of the Rajya Sabha and general secretary of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic Sharia, since the Quran declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.^[269] Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.^[270]

Conflict and controversy

Conversion controversy

Somnath temple in ruins, 1869

Front view of the present Somnath Temple

The Somnath temple was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader Mahmud of Ghazni and repeatedly rebuilt after being demolished by successive Muslim rulers, including the Mughals under Aurangzeb.

Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:^[271]

1. The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian Plateau or Arabs.^{[272][page needed]}
2. Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes^[271][272]
3. Conversion was a result of the actions of Sunni Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart.^[271]
4. Conversion came from Buddhists and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive Hindu caste strictures.^[272]
5. A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart.^[271]
6. As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilisation and global polity at large.^[272]

Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to

Historians such as Will Durant described Islamic invasions of India as "The bloodiest story in history.^[273][274] Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects".^[275] Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the Fatawa-i Jahandari,^[20] where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes.^[276] Others argue that, during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, Indian-origin religions experienced persecution from various Muslim conquerors^[277] who massacred Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, attacked temples and monasteries, and forced conversions on the battlefield.^[278]

Disputers of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as a refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today.

Muslim invaders were not all simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born to Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Battuta who travelled through Delhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, Persia and Anatolia were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts, suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India – II) however points to Muhammad bin Tughluq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.^[279]

Numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors.^[280] Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors,^[281] but notes this was not unusual in medieval India where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.^{[282][283][284]} He also notes there were many instances of the Delhi Sultanate, which often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources, and that attacks on temples had significantly declined under the Mughal Empire.^[281]

During the Noakhali riots in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.^[299][300]

From 1947 to 1991

The aftermath of the

In the 1998 Prankote massacre, 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.^[301]

Kashmir (1990s)

During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the native

One of the most violent events in recent times took place during the Gujarat riots in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.^[307] There were also allegations made of state involvement.^[307][308] The riots were in retaliation to the Godhra train burning in which 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed site of the Babri Masjid, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.^[309] In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.^[310]

In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by the National Council of Educational Research and Training after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According to The Guardian, the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a Dark Age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".^[314] In one textbook, it was purported that the Taj Mahal, the Qutb Minar and the Red Fort – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".^[314]

West Bengal (2010)

In the

Assam (2012)

At least 77 people died

The 2023 Haryana riots, stemming from communal clashes during the Brajmandal Yatra pilgrimage, resulted in seven fatalities and over 200 injuries. The violence began when the inclusion of Bajrang Dal activist Monu Manesar, a suspect in the murder of two Muslim men, sparked anger within the Muslim community in Mewat. The BJP government was criticized for allowing Manesar's participation, leading to an organized attack on the procession, triggering retaliatory actions. The government responded with a curfew, internet suspension, and additional troops. Critics blame the BJP government for not preventing the escalation and allowing a potentially volatile situation to unfold.

Muslim–Sikh conflict

Massive population exchanges took place during the Partition of India in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, where the western parts were assigned to Pakistan, while the eastern parts went to India. 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, as 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.^[328]

Muslim–Buddhist conflict

In 1989 there was a social boycott by the Buddhists of the Muslims of Leh district.^{[citation needed]} The boycott remained in force till 1992. Relations between the Buddhists and Muslims in Leh improved after the lifting of the boycott, although suspicions remained.^[329]

Prominent Muslims in India

India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world. Out of the 12

1. Barkatullah Khan (Rajasthan: 1971–73)
2. Abdul Ghafoor (Bihar: 1973–75)
3. C. H. Mohammed Koya (Kerala: 1979)
4. Anwara Taimur (Assam: 1980–81)
5. A. R. Antulay (Maharashtra: 1980–82)
6. Mohammed Alimuddin (Manipur: 1973–74)
7. M. O. H. Farook was a three-time CM of the Union Territory of Pondicherry.

Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include Yusuf Khan (stage name Dilip Kumar),^[330] Shah Rukh Khan,^[331] Salman Khan, Aamir Khan,^[332] Saif Ali Khan,^[333][334] Madhubala,^[335] Nawazuddin Siddiqui,^[336] Naseeruddin Shah, Johnny Walker, Shabana Azmi,^[337] Waheeda Rehman,^[338] Mumtaz, Amjad Khan, Ajit Khan, Kader Khan, Feroz Khan, Sanjay Khan, Meena Kumari, Prem Nazir, Mammootty, Dulquer Salmaan, Asif Ali, Nargis, Irrfan Khan, Farida Jalal, Arshad Warsi, Mehmood, Ali Fazal, Farhan Akhtar, Zeenat Aman, Raza Murad, Farooq Sheikh and Tabu.

Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include Mehboob Khan, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Nasir Hussain, Kamal Amrohi, K. Asif, Anees Bazmee, Kabir Khan, Ali Abbas Zafar and the Abbas–Mustan duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. M. F. Husain is one of India's best known contemporary artists. Academy Awards winners Resul Pookutty and A. R. Rahman, Naushad, Salim–Sulaiman and Nadeem Akhtar of the Nadeem–Shravan duo are some of India's celebrated musicians. Abrar Alvi penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include Shakeel Badayuni, Sahir Ludhianvi and Majrooh Sultanpuri. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith include Mohammed Rafi, Anu Malik, Lucky Ali, Javed Ali, Armaan Malik, Adnan Sami, Talat Mahmood and Shamshad Begum. Another famous personality is the Padma Vibhushan awardee tabla maestro Zakir Hussian.

• Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command: 1992–93),[347]
• Lieutenant General Sami Khan (Commandant of the National Defence Academy: 1985–86, GoC-in-C, Central Command: 1988–89)
• Lieutenant General Pattiarimmal Mohamed Hariz (GOC-in-C, Southern Command: 2016–17),^[348]
• Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein Naqvi (Deputy Chief of Air Staff: 1997–99, Senior Air Staff Officer, Training Command 1999–2001)^[349]
• Lieutenant General Syed Ata Hasnain (GOC XV Corps: 2010–2012, Military Secretary: 2012–13)
• Major General Afsir Karim
• Major General SM Hasnain
• Major General Mohammed Amin Naik.^[350]

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Further reading

• ISBN 81-7541-115-5
  .
• Mohamed Taher. Muslims in India: Recent Contributions to Literature on Religion, Philosophy, History, & Social Aspects. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 1993.
  ISBN 81-7041-620-5. Excerpts
• Mohammad Mujeeb. Islam in South Asia: A Short History. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008.
• ISBN 81-7069-096-X
• Yogindar Sikand. Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-faith Relations. Routledge, 2004.
  ISBN 0-415-31486-0
  .
• Elliot and Dowson:
  The History of India as told by its own Historians
  , New Delhi reprint, 1990.
• Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John.
  The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List
  )
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• Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1973). The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VII: The Mughal Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
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• M K A Siddiqui (ed.), Marginal Muslim Communities in India, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi (2004) (review)
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• Wink, André (2004). Indo-Islamic society: 14th – 15th centuries. Vol. 3 of Al-Hind Series. BRILL.
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• Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List
• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.