Islam in the United States
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The first Muslims to arrive in America were enslaved people from West Africa (such as Omar ibn Said and Ayuba Suleiman Diallo). During the Atlantic slave trade, an estimated 10 to 20 percent[4][5] of the slaves brought to colonial America from West Africa were Muslims,[6][7] however Islam was suppressed on plantations.[4] Nearly all enslaved Muslims and their descendants converted to Christianity during the 18th and 19th centuries, though the Black power movement of the 20th century would later influence the revival of Islam among descendants of slaves. Prior to the late 19th century, the vast majority of documented Muslims in North America were merchants, travelers, and sailors.[6]
From the 1880s to 1914, several thousand Muslims immigrated to the United States from the former territories of the
In 2005, more people from Muslim-majority countries became
American Muslims come from various backgrounds and, according to a 2009
History
Historical overview
The early history of Muslims in the New World is the subject of debate. Historians[who?] argue that Muslims first arrived in the Americas in the early 16th century in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. All analysts[citation needed] agree that the first large population of Muslims consisted of African slaves. Most slaves who tried to maintain Islamic religious practices after their arrival were forcibly converted to Christianity. In the mid-seventeenth century, Ottoman Muslims are documented to have immigrated with other European immigrants, such as Anthony Janszoon van Salee a merchant of mixed origin from Morocco. Immigration drastically increased from 1878 to 1924 when Muslims from the Balkans, and Syria settled in modern-day Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, North Dakota and South Dakota. During that era, the Ford Company employed Muslims as well as African-Americans, since they were the most inclined to work in its factories under demanding conditions. By the 1930s and 1940s, Muslims in the US built mosques for their communal religious observance. At present, the number of Muslims in the US is variously estimated at 3-4 million, and Islam is soon predicted to become the second-largest religion in the US.[19][20]
Early records
One of the earliest accounts of Islam's possible presence in North America dates to 1528, when a Moroccan slave, called Mustafa Azemmouri, was shipwrecked near what is now Galveston, Texas.[21] He and three Spanish survivors subsequently traveled through much of the American southwest and the Mexican interior before reaching Mexico City.
Historian Peter Manseau wrote:
Muslims' presence [in the United States] is affirmed in documents dated more than a century before religious liberty became the law of the land, as in a Virginia statute of 1682 which referred to "negroes, moores, molatoes, and others, born of and in heathenish, idolatrous, pagan, and Mahometan parentage and country" who "heretofore and hereafter may be purchased, procured, or otherwise obtained, as slaves."[22]
American Revolution and thereafter
Records from the American Revolutionary War indicate that at least a few likely Muslims fought on the American side. Among the recorded names of American soldiers are "Yusuf ben Ali" (a member of the Turks of South Carolina community), "Bampett Muhamed"[23] and possibly Peter Salem.[24][25]
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Letter of George Washington to Mohammed ben Abdallah in appreciation of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, signed in 1787.
The first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation was the
Bilali "Ben Ali" Muhammad was a Fula Muslim from Timbo, Futa-Jallon, in present-day Guinea-Conakry, who arrived at Sapelo Island during 1803. While enslaved, he became the religious leader and Imam for a slave community numbering approximately eighty Muslim men residing on his plantation. During the War of 1812, Muhammad and the eighty Muslim men under his leadership protected their master's Sapelo Island property from a British attack.[28] He is known to have fasted during the month of Ramadan, worn a fez and kaftan, and observed the Muslim feasts, in addition to consistently performing the five obligatory prayers.[29] In 1829, Bilali authored a thirteen-page Arabic Risala on Islamic beliefs and the rules for ablution, morning prayer, and the calls to prayer. Known as the Bilali Document, it is currently housed at the University of Georgia in Athens.
Between 1785 and 1815, over a hundred American sailors were held for ransom in Algiers. Several wrote captivity narratives of their experiences that gave most Americans their first view of the Arab World and Muslim ways, and newspapers often commented on them. The views were generally negative. Royall Tyler wrote The Algerine Captive (1797), an early American novel depicting the life of an American doctor employed in the slave trade who himself is captured and enslaved by Barbary pirates. Finally, Presidents Jefferson and Madison sent the American navy to confront the pirates, and ended the threat in 1815 during the First Barbary War.[30][31][32]
Nineteenth century
On the morning of April 5, 1865, near the end of the American Civil War, Union troops commanded by Col. Thomas M. Johnston set ablaze the University of Alabama; a copy of the Quran known as The Koran: Commonly Called The Alcoran was saved by one of the university's staff.[33]
Estimates ranging from a dozen to two hundred and ninety-two Muslims served in the Union military during the American Civil War,[34] including Private Mohammed Kahn, who was born in Persia, raised in Afghanistan, and emigrated to the United States.[35] The highest-ranking Muslim officer in the Union Army was Captain Moses Osman.[34] Nicholas Said (born 1836), formerly enslaved to an Arab master, came to the United States in 1860 and found a teaching job in Detroit. In 1863, Said enlisted in the 55th Massachusetts Colored Regiment in the United States Army and rose to the rank of sergeant. He was later granted a transfer to a military hospital, where he gained some knowledge of medicine. His Army records state that he died in Brownsville, Tennessee, in 1882.[36] Another Muslim soldier from the Civil War was Max Hassan, an African who worked for the military as a porter.[37]
A Greek/Syrian convert to Islam, Phillip Tedro (a name he reverted to later in life), born in Smyrna, who renamed himself Hajj Ali, 'Ali who made the pilgrimage to Mecca,' (commonly spelled as "Hi Jolly") was hired by the United States Cavalry in 1856 to tend camels in Arizona and California. He would later become a prospector in Arizona.[38][39] Hajj Ali died in 1903.[36]
During the American Civil War, the "scorched earth" policy of the North destroyed churches, farms, schools, libraries, colleges, and a great deal of other property. The libraries at the University of Alabama managed to save one book from the debris of their library buildings. On the morning of April 4, 1865, when Federal troops reached the campus with an order to destroy the university, Andre Deloffre, a modern language professor and custodian of the library, appealed to the commanding officer to spare one of the finest libraries in the South. The officer, being sympathetic, sent a courier to Gen. Croxton at his headquarters in Tuscaloosa, Alabama asking permission to save the Rotunda, but the general refused to allow this. The officer reportedly said, "I will save one volume as a memento of this occasion." The volume selected was a rare copy of the Qur'an.[40]
Alexander Russell Webb is considered by historians to be the earliest prominent Anglo-American convert to Islam in 1888. In 1893, he was the sole representative of Islam at the first Parliament of the World's Religions.[41] The Russian-born Muslim scholar and writer Achmed Abdullah (1881–1945) was another prominent early American Muslim.[42]
In the 1891 Supreme Court case In re Ross, the Court referred to “the intense hostility of the people of Muslim faith to all other sects, and particularly to Christians".[43] Scores of Muslim immigrants were turned away at U.S. ports in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Christian immigrants suspected of secretly being Muslims were also excluded.[44]
Slaves
Many enslaved people brought to America from Africa were Muslims from the predominantly-Muslim West African region.[4][8][45] Between 1701 and 1800, some 500,000 Africans arrived in what became the United States.[46] Historians estimate that between 15 and 30 percent of all enslaved African men and less than 15 percent of the enslaved African women were Muslims. According to 21st century researchers Donna Meigs-Jaques and R. Kevin Jaques, "[t]hese enslaved Muslims stood out from their compatriots because of their resistance, determination and education."[47]
It is estimated that over 50% of the slaves imported to North America came from areas where Islam was followed by at least a minority population. Thus, no less than 200,000 came from regions influenced by Islam. Substantial numbers originated from Senegambia, a region with an established community of Muslim inhabitants extending to the 11th century.[48]
Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the
Michael A. Gomez speculated that Muslim slaves may have accounted for "thousands, if not tens of thousands", but does not offer a precise estimate. He also suggests many non-Muslim slaves were acquainted with some tenets of Islam, due to Muslim trading and proselytizing activities.[50] Historical records indicate many enslaved Muslims conversed in the Arabic language. Some even composed literature (such as autobiographies) and commentaries on the Quran.[51]
Some newly arrived Muslim slaves assembled for communal
Omar ibn Said (c. 1770–1864) is among the best documented examples of a practicing-Muslim slave. He lived on a 19th Century North Carolina plantation and wrote many Arabic texts while enslaved. Born in the kingdom of Futa Tooro (modern Senegal), he arrived in America in 1807, one month before the U.S. abolished importation of slaves. Some of his works include the Lords Prayer, the Bismillah, this is How You Pray, Quranic phases, the 23rd Psalm, and an autobiography. In 1857, he produced his last known writing on Surah 110 of the Quran. In 1819, Omar received an Arabic translation of the Christian Bible from his master, James Owen. Omar converted to Christianity in 1820, an episode widely used throughout the South to "prove" the benevolence of slavery. However, many scholars believe he continued to be a practicing Muslim, based on dedications to Muhammad written in his Bible.[52][53]
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Ayuba Suleiman Diallo was the son of an Imam of Boonda in Africa, before being enslaved.
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Omar Ibn Said was an Islamic scholar from Senegal.
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Qur'ancopied by Omar ibn Said.
Religious freedom
Views of Islam in America affected debates regarding freedom of religion during the drafting of the state constitution of Pennsylvania in 1776. Constitutionalists promoted religious toleration while Anti-constitutionalists called for reliance on Protestant values in the formation of the state's republican government. The former group won out and inserted a clause for religious liberty in the new state constitution. American views of Islam were influenced by favorable Enlightenment writings from Europe, as well as Europeans who had long warned that Islam was a threat to Christianity and republicanism.[54]
In 1776, John Adams published "Thoughts on Government", in which he mentions the Islamic prophet Muhammad as a "sober inquirer after truth" alongside Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, and other thinkers.
In 1785, George Washington stated a willingness to hire "Mahometans", as well as people of any nation or religion, to work on his private estate at Mount Vernon if they were "good workmen".[55]
In 1790, the South Carolina legislative body granted special legal status to a community of Moroccans.
In 1797, President John Adams signed the
In his autobiography, published in 1791, Benjamin Franklin stated that he "did not disapprove" of a meeting place in Pennsylvania that was designed to accommodate preachers of all religions. Franklin wrote that "even if the Mufti of Constantinople were to send a missionary to preach Mohammedanism to us, he would find a pulpit at his service".[57]
President
However, not all politicians were pleased with the religious neutrality of the Constitution, which prohibited any religious test. Anti-Federalists in the 1788 North Carolina ratifying convention opposed the new constitution; one reason was the fear that some day Catholics or Muslims might be elected president. William Lancaster said:[60]
- Let us remember that we form a government for millions not yet in existence ... In the course of four or five hundred years, I do not know how it will work. This is most certain, that Papists may occupy that chair, and Mahometans may take it. I see nothing against it.
In 1788, Americans held inaccurate, and often contradicting, views of the Muslim world, and used that in political arguments. For example, the anti-Federalists compared a strong central government to the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the American army to Turkish Janissaries, arguing against a strong central government. On the other hand, Alexander Hamilton argued that despotism in the Middle East was the result of the Sultan not having enough power to protect his people from oppressive local governors; thus he argued for a stronger central government.[61]
20th century
Modern Muslims
Small-scale migration to the U.S. by Muslims began in 1840, with the arrival of
- 1893: Alexander Russell Webb starts the first Islamic Mission in the United States called the American Muslim Propagation Movement.
- 1906: Chicago, Illinois, started the Džemijetul Hajrije (Jamaat al-Khayriyya) (The Benevolent Society; a social service organization devoted to Bosnian Muslims). This is the longest lasting incorporated Muslim community in the United States. They met in Bosnian coffeehouses and eventually opened the first Islamic Sunday School with curriculum and textbooks under Bosnian scholar Sheikh Kamil Avdich (Ćamil Avdić) (a graduate of al-Azhar and author of Survey of Islamic Doctrines).
- 1907: Podlasie region of Poland founded the first Muslim organization in New York City, the American Mohammedan Society which became the Powers Street Mosque.[62][63] In 2017 they celebrated the 110 anniversary of their establishment.[64]
- 1915: What is most likely the first American mosque was founded by
- 1920: The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was established by the arrival of Ahmadi Muslim missionary, he later purchased a building in south Chicago and converted it to what is today known as the Al-Sadiq Mosquewhich was rebuilt as purpose-built mosque in 1990s.
- 1921: The Highland Park Mosque was built in Highland Park, Michigan, although closed a few years later.
- 1929: The Ross Masjid in North Dakota was founded by Syrian Muslims, there is still a cemetery nearby.[67]
- 1934: The oldest continuously and still standing building built specifically to be a mosque was established in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The mosque is where Abdullah Igram a notable Muslim veteran would teach the Quran, Abdullah Igram later wrote a letter to President Eisenhower persuading him to add the M option (for Muslims) on military dog tags.
- 1935: The statue of Mohammed was drawn on the north wall of the US Supreme Court building in 1935. Also, statues of Charlemagne and Justinian as one of eighteen great law givers of history are seen around the statue of Mohammed.[68]
- 1945: A mosque existed in Arab-Americanpopulation in the U.S.
"Since the 1950s," many notable political activists and socialites with influence over politicians have come from the American Muslim community.[69]
The Muslim population of the U.S. increased dramatically after President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 into law.[9] The act abolished former immigration quotas, and expanded immigration opportunities from countries with significant Muslim populations.[9]
Approximately 2.78 million people immigrated to the United States from countries with significant Muslim populations between 1966 and 1997, with some estimating 1.1 million people of that population being Muslims.[9] One-third of those immigrants originated from North Africa or the Middle East, one-third originated from South Asian countries, with the remaining third originating from across the entire world.[9] Immigration to the United States post-1965 favored those deemed to have specialized educational and skills, thus impacting the socio-economic makeup of American Muslims.[9] The United States began seeing Muslim immigrants arrive in the late 20th century as refugees due to such reasons as political unrest, war, and famine.[9]
Subgroups of Muslim Americans
According to the
Black Muslim movements
During the first half of the 20th century, several groups based on Islamic and Gnostic teachings were established by African Americans.
Moorish Science Temple of America
The Moorish Science Temple of America is an American organization founded in 1913 by Noble Drew Ali, making it the oldest Islamic organization in the United States. Drew taught that black people were of Moorish origin but their Muslim identity was taken away through slavery and racial segregation, advocating the return to Islam of their Moorish ancestry.[70] The founder stated that the organization practiced the "Old Time Religion" of Islamism, but he also drew inspiration from Mohammedanism, Buddhism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and Taoism. Its significant divergences from mainstream Islam [71] make its classification as an Islamic denomination a matter of debate among Muslims and scholars of religion.
Its primary tenet was the belief that they are the ancient Moabites who inhabited the Northwestern and Southwestern shores of Africa. The organization also believes that their descendants after being conquered in Spain are slaves who were captured and held in slavery from 1779 to 1865 by their slaveholders.
Adherents of the Moorish Science Temple of America believe that the so-called "
The Moorish Science Temple of America's current leader is R. Jones-Bey. [73]
Nation of Islam
The Nation of Islam (NOI) was created in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad. Fard drew inspiration for NOI doctrines from those of Timothy Drew's Moorish Science Temple of America. He provided three main principles which serve as the foundation of the NOI: "Allah is God, the white man is the devil and the so-called Negroes are the Asiatic Black People, the cream of the planet earth".[74]
In 1934, Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the NOI, he deified Fard, saying that he was an incarnation of God, and taught that he was a prophet who had been taught directly by God in the form of Fard. Two of the most famous people to join the NOI were Malcolm X, who became the face of the NOI in the media, and Muhammad Ali, who, while initially rejected, was accepted into the group shortly after his first world heavyweight championship victory.[75] Both Malcolm X and Ali later became Sunni Muslims.[76][77]
Malcolm X was one of the most influential leaders of the NOI and, in accordance with NOI doctrine, advocated the complete
It was estimated that there were at least 20,000 members in 2006.[79] However, today the group has a wide influence in the African-American community. The first Million Man March took place in Washington, D.C. in 1995 and was followed later by another one in 2000 which was smaller in size but more inclusive, welcoming individuals other than just African-American men.[80] The group sponsors cultural and academic education, economic independence, and personal and social responsibility.
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The Nation of Islam has received a great deal of criticism for its anti-white, anti-Christian, and anti-semitic teachings,[81] and is listed as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.[82]
Five-Percent Nation
The Five-Percent Nation, sometimes referred to as NGE or NOGE, the Nation of Gods and Earths, or the Five Percenters, is an American organization founded in 1964 in the
Members of the group call themselves Allah's Five Percenters, which reflects the concept that ten percent of the people in the world know the truth of existence, and those elites and agents opt to keep eighty-five percent of the world in ignorance and under their controlling thumb; the remaining five percent are those who know the truth and are determined to enlighten the rest.[84]
United Nation of Islam
The United Nation of Islam (UNOI) is a group based in Kansas City, Kansas. It was founded circa 1978 by Royall Jenkins, who continues to be the leader of the group and styles himself "Royall, Allah in Person".
Conversion to orthodox Sunni Islam
After the death of Elijah Muhammad, he was succeeded by his son, Warith Deen Mohammed. Mohammed rejected many teachings of his father, such as the divinity of Fard Muhammad, and saw a white person as also a worshiper. As he took control of the organization, he quickly brought in new reforms.[85] He renamed it the World Community of al-Islam in the West; later it became the American Society of Muslims. It was estimated that there were 200,000 followers of W. D. Mohammed at the time.
W. D. Mohammed introduced teachings which were based on orthodox Sunni Islam.
A small number of Black Muslims however rejected these new reforms brought by Imam Mohammed. Louis Farrakhan, who broke away from the organization, re-established the Nation of Islam under the original Fardian doctrines, and remains its leader.[88]
Shia Islam
An estimated 386,000
The "heart of Shiism in the U.S." is placed in Dearborn,[94] home to the Islamic Center of America. The North American Shia Ithna-Asheri (Twelver Shi'ism) Muslim Communities Organization (NASIMCO) is the largest umbrella group for North American Shias.[92]
Sufism
Some Muslim Americans adhere to the doctrines of
Quranic movement
The largest
Non-denominational Muslims
Research by Pew in 2011 found that Non-denominational Muslims make up roughly one in seven of all American Muslims, at 15%. Non-denominational Muslims, do not have any specific affiliation with a religious body and usually describe themselves as being "just a Muslim". Muslims who were born in the US are more likely to be non-denominational than immigrant Muslims. 24% or one in four US-born Muslims are non-denominational, versus 10% of immigrant Muslims.[97]
Ahmadiyya
The
Other Muslims
There are some mosquegoers who adhere to sects and denominations that form very small minorities. Examples of such small branches include
Conversion to Islam
Some of the earliest
According to an article in 2001, 25,000 Americans convert to Islam per year.[106]
In more recent years, there has been significant conversion to Islam in the state, federal, and local prisons of the United States. According to J. Michael Waller, Muslim inmates constitute 15–20% of the prison population, or roughly 350,000 inmates in 2003. Waller states that these inmates mostly come into prison as non-Muslims. He also says that 80% of the prisoners who "find faith" while in prison convert to Islam.[107] These converted inmates are mostly African American, with a small but growing Hispanic minority.[108][109][110]
Demographics
The U.S. Census Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. Various institutions and organizations have given widely varying estimates about the Muslim population in the U.S. Tom W. Smith, author of "Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States", said that of twenty estimates he reviewed during a five-year period until 2001, none was "based on a scientifically-sound or explicit methodology. All can probably be characterized as guesses or assertions. Nine came from Muslim organizations such as the Islamic Society of North America, the Muslim Student Association, the Council on American-Islamic Relations, the American Muslim Council, and the Harvard Islamic Society or unspecified 'Muslim sources'. None of these sources gave any basis for their figures."[111] In 2005, according to The New York Times, more people from Muslim countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96,000—than in any year in the previous two decades.[12][13][112]
According to CAIR, no scientific count of Muslims in the U.S. has been done and the larger figures should be considered accurate. Some journalists have also alleged that the higher numbers have been inflated for political purposes.[113][114]
According to a Pew Forum estimate, in 2017 there were 3.45 million Muslims, constituting about 1.1% of the total U.S. population,[2] compared with 70.6% who follow Christianity, 22.8% unaffiliated, 1.9% Judaism, 0.7% Buddhism, and 0.7% Hinduism.[115][116] A Pew Forum report on American religion found that Muslims accounted for 0.9% of American adults in 2014, up from 0.4% in 2007, due largely to immigration. Retention rates were high, at 77%, similar to Hindus (80%) and Jews (75%); most people who leave these religions become unaffiliated, although ex-Muslims were more likely to be Christians than ex-Hindus or ex-Jews were. Conversely, 23% of American Muslims were converts, including 8% from historically black Protestant traditions, 6% from being unaffiliated, 4% from Catholicism, and 3% from mainline or evangelical Protestantism. By race, in 2014, 38% were non-Hispanic white (including Arabs and Iranians, up from 32% in 2007), 28% were Asian (mostly Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis, up from 20% in 2007), 28% were black (down from 32%), 4% Hispanic (down from 7%), and 3% of mixed or other race (down from 7%). Since 2007, the black proportion had shrunk, while the white and Asian proportions had grown, mainly due to immigration as most black Muslims were native U.S. blacks.[117]
On the other hand, according to data from the General Social Survey in the United States "32% of those raised Muslim no longer embrace
Race
According to a 2001 study written by Ihsan Bagby, an associate professor of Islamic studies at the
Since the arrival of South Asian and Arab communities during the 1990s there has been divisions with the African Americans due to the racial and cultural differences; however, since September 11, 2001, the two groups joined when the immigrant communities looked towards the African Americans for advice on
Religion
According to a 2014 religious survey, 64% of American Muslims believe religion is very important, compared to 58% of American Catholics who believe so. The frequency of receiving answers to prayers among Muslims was, 31% at least once a week and 12% once or twice a month.
In many areas, a mosque may be dominated by whatever group of immigrants is the largest. Sometimes the Friday sermons, or
Education and income
The household income levels of American Muslims are about as evenly distributed as the general American population.[131]
When it comes to education, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding reported in 2017 that across the board, American Muslims, Protestants, and Catholics have similar education levels. It has also been found that Muslim women (73%) are more likely than Muslim men (57%) to go on to pursue higher education beyond high school, and they are also more likely to report being in the middle class.[16]
Current estimates show that there are 270 full-time Islamic schools that enrol between 26,000 and 35,500 students in the United States. Islamic k-12 schools typically teach
Among South Asians in the country, the large Pakistani American community stands out as particularly well educated and prosperous, with education and income levels exceeding those of U.S.-born whites. Many are
45 percent of immigrant Muslims report annual household income levels of $50,000 or higher. This compares to the national average of 44 percent. Immigrant Muslims are well represented among higher-income earners, with 19 percent having annual household incomes of $100,000 or higher (compared to 16 percent for the Muslim population as a whole and 17 percent for the U.S. average). This is likely due to the strong concentration of Muslims in professional, managerial, and technical fields, especially in information technology, education, medicine, law, and the corporate world.[137]
By state
There were estimated to be about 4.5 million Muslim adherents across the United States in 2020.[138]
State |
Muslim (estimate)[138] |
Percent Muslim (estimate)[138] |
---|---|---|
United States | 4,453,908 | 1.34% |
Illinois | 473,792 | 3.70% |
New York | 724,475 | 3.59% |
New Jersey | 321,652 | 3.46% |
Maryland | 188,914 | 3.06% |
Michigan | 241,828 | 2.40% |
Minnesota | 114,590 | 2.01% |
Virginia | 169,371 | 1.96% |
Massachusetts | 131,749 | 1.87% |
Arizona | 109,765 | 1.53% |
California | 504,056 | 1.27% |
North Carolina | 130,661 | 1.25% |
Maine | 16,894 | 1.24% |
Connecticut | 43,905 | 1.22% |
Wisconsin | 68,699 | 1.17% |
Pennsylvania | 149,561 | 1.15% |
Georgia | 123,652 | 1.15% |
District of Columbia | 7,528 | 1.09% |
Texas | 313,209 | 1.07% |
Ohio | 120,077 | 1.02% |
Vermont | 6,201 | 0.96% |
Missouri | 53,443 | 0.87% |
Utah | 25,403 | 0.78% |
Iowa | 23,211 | 0.73% |
Delaware | 7,065 | 0.71% |
Indiana | 41,400 | 0.61% |
Florida | 127,172 | 0.59% |
Tennessee | 39,745 | 0.58% |
New Mexico | 12,046 | 0.57% |
Louisiana | 24,732 | 0.53% |
Alabama | 23,550 | 0.47% |
Kentucky | 17,957 | 0.40% |
Oklahoma | 15,290 | 0.39% |
Washington | 27,391 | 0.36% |
Nevada | 7,400 | 0.24% |
Rhode Island | 2,599 | 0.24% |
Arkansas | 6,765 | 0.22% |
Colorado | 10,828 | 0.19% |
Idaho | 2,531 | 0.14% |
South Carolina | 6,677 | 0.13% |
Kansas | 3,615 | 0.12% |
Oregon | 4,934 | 0.12% |
Nebraska | 2,402 | 0.12% |
Mississippi | 3,106 | 0.10% |
New Hampshire | 1,172 | 0.09% |
North Dakota | 540 | 0.07% |
South Dakota | 535 | 0.06% |
West Virginia | 849 | 0.05% |
Alaska | 400 | 0.05% |
Wyoming | 226 | 0.04% |
Montana | 200 | 0.02% |
Hawaii | 145 | 0.01% |
Population concentrations
Generally speaking, Muslims are concentrated in the Eastern one-third of the United States, and particularly in the Northeast megalopolis, given the region's relative proximity to the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, and South Asia by flight.
As of 2020,
Mosques
In 2020, the US Mosque Survey identified 2,796 Islamic places of worship in the United States, a "31% increase from the 2010 count." The U.S. states with the highest number of mosques were New York (343), California (304), Texas (224), Florida (157), and New Jersey (141), with New York gaining the highest number of mosques compared to 2011 (86 additional).[142] As part of a sampled survey, the US Mosque Survey reports that 6% of mosques self identified as Shi'ite.[143] Pew Research Center notes that 61% of respondents to the survey "say that women have served on the board at some point in the last five years."[144]
Previously, in 2011, the number of mosques in the United States was 2,106. At the time, the six states with the highest numbers of mosques were: New York (257), California (246), Texas (166), Florida (118), Illinois (109), and New Jersey (109).[145]
In the United States in particular, it has been shown in a study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding that Muslim Americans who regularly attend mosques are more likely to work with their neighbors to solve community problems (49 vs. 30 percent), be registered to vote (74 vs. 49 percent), and plan to vote (92 vs. 81 percent). The study also states that “there is no correlation between Muslim attitudes toward violence and their frequency of mosque attendance.”[146]
Regarding mosque attendance, data shows that American Muslim women and American Muslim men attend the mosque at similar rates (45% for men and 35% for women). Additionally, when compared to the general public looking at the attendance of religious services, young Muslim Americans attend the mosque at closer rates to older Muslim Americans.
Culture
Within the Muslim community in the United States there exist a number of different traditions. As in the rest of the world, the Sunni Muslims are in the majority. Shia Muslims, especially those in the Iranian immigrant community, are also active in community affairs. All four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) are found among the Sunni community.
Muslims in the United States have increasingly made their own culture; there are various Muslim comedy groups, rap groups, Scout troops and magazines, and Muslims have been vocal in other forms of media as well.[148]
Hijab is commonly worn by Muslim women in the United States, and is a very distinctive cultural feature of Muslims in America. According to a Pew Research Center poll from 2011, 36% of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% indicating they wore it most or some of the time, while only 40% indicated that they never wore the headcover.[149] Contrary to popular beliefs about assimilation, the study found that the number of women wearing hijab was in fact higher among native-born Muslim women compared to first-generation Muslim immigrants.[150] In the 1990s, however, hijabs were not commonly seen in the United States, as overt Islamization became more apparent only during the 21st century.[151] Compared to some nations in Western Europe, such as France and the Netherlands,[152][153] there have been relatively few controversies surrounding the hijab in everyday life, a product of "pro-religious freedom" laws allowing for a wide range of religious accommodations, and also due to greater support for multiculturalism.
In his 2008 book Al' America, writer and journalist Jonathan Curiel wrote about the consequences of 9/11 on the perception of Islamic culture in America, stating that it has been difficult for some Americans to "see Arab and Muslim culture as anything other than terrorism and fundamentalism".[154] The Islamic experience in the US is also not well known or researched among mainstream society, with Jewish scholar Lior Sternfeld stating, "Muslim-Americans were a much smaller and more marginalized community, but it's changing."[154]
Politics
To date, four Muslims have served in the United States Congress, all members of the Democratic Party.[155] The first was Keith Ellison, who took office representing Minnesota in 2007.[156]
Party politics
In the
By 2004, Bush's Muslim support had been reduced to under 1%, and Democratic candidate John Kerry's support rose to 93%, with 5% voting for Ralph Nader.[160][161]
By 2008, Democratic candidate Barack Obama got 67% to 90% of the Muslim vote depending on region.[162] In total, Obama won 89% of the Muslim vote, with his Republican opponent John McCain getting only 2%.[163] Some of his opponents question Obama's religious faith; see Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories.
By 2012, Barack Obama's support slightly falls to 85%, with 4% voting for his Republican opponent, Mitt Romney.[164]
In a 2017 Survey done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, only 15% of American Muslims wanted Donald Trump to win the 2016 presidential election, compared to 54% wanting Hillary Clinton to win.[165] 74% of Muslims ended up voting for Clinton, compared to 13% for Trump.[166]
According to a 2018 poll from the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, American Muslims were as satisfied with the American trajectory as the general public, reporting at around 27%. Regarding the 45th president of the United States, Donald Trump, Muslims are the least likely to approve of him across all faith groups including non affiliated Americans. This compares to, "17% of non-affiliated Americans, 31% of
According to the report belongs to a Boston-based organization that works to increase American Muslim education and civic engagement, "at least 145 American Muslims, virtually all of them Democrats, ran for state or national public office in 2018. Of these, 110 were first-time candidates who represent an unprecedented rise for a diverse Muslim community that is typically underrepresented in American politics.".[154]
In
American Muslim political engagement is increasing, as 75% of American Muslims surveyed by ISPU reported being registered to vote, an increase of 15% from 2016 data.
Election year | Democratic | Republican |
---|---|---|
2000 | 22%[b] | 78% |
2004 | 93% | <1% |
2008 | 89% | 2% |
2012 | 85% | 4% |
2016 | 74% | 13% |
2020 | 78% | 19% |
LGBT issues
American Muslims in the 2000s and early 2010s showed generally conservative views about homosexuality, with only about 27% of American Muslims saying it should be accepted by society in 2007, compared to 51% of the entire US public in 2006, according to the Pew Research Center. However, this later rose to 39% in 2011 (compared to 58% of the entire US public), and eventually in 2017, rising to a majority at 52% of American Muslims approving of societal acceptance of homosexuality, on par with the approval of Protestants, although lower than the total US public approval rate of 63%.[172]
A 2017 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute showed that a slim majority of Muslims at 51% supported gay marriage, compared to 34% opposed.[173]
Organizations
One of the largest Islamic organizations is the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) which says that 27% of mosques in U.S. are associated with it. ISNA is an association of immigrant Muslim organizations and individuals that provides a common platform for presenting Islam. It is composed mostly of immigrants. Its membership may have recently exceeded ASM, as many independent mosques throughout the United States are choosing to affiliate with it. ISNA's annual convention is the largest gathering of Muslims in the United States.[174]
The second largest Muslim organization is the community under the leadership of W. Deen Mohammed or the
The third largest group is the
The
The Islamic Assembly of North America (IANA) is a leading Muslim organization in the United States. According to its website, among the goals of IANA is to "unify and coordinate the efforts of the different dawah oriented organizations in North America and guide or direct the Muslims of this land to adhere to the proper Islamic methodology." In order to achieve its goals, IANA uses a number of means and methods including conventions, general meetings, dawah-oriented institutions and academies, etc.[181] IANA folded in the aftermath of the attack of September 11, 2001 and they have reorganized under various banners such as Texas Dawah and the Almaghrib Institute.
The
The Islamic Information Center (IIC) is a "grass-roots" organization that has been formed for the purpose of informing the public, mainly through the media, about the real image of Islam and Muslims. The IIC is run by chairman (Hojatul-Islam) Imam Syed Rafiq Naqvi, various committees, and supported by volunteers.[183]
The Shia Muslim Foundation (SMF) works to support civic rights of American Shia Muslims, and to advocate on social and political issues. SMF is noted for working with both Shia community leaders and Shia Islamic scholars and clergy in accomplishing its work.[184]
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community was established in the U.S. in 1921, before the existence of Nation of Islam, according to its members.[185][186]
Muslim Congress is another National Muslim Organization. It is primarily a Social Welfare organization and runs many social projects, including Food Distribution to the homeless in their "No More Hunger" project and also provides Scholarship. It is under the leadership of Islamic Scholars.
Political
Muslim political organizations lobby on behalf of various Muslim political interests. Organizations such as the American Muslim Council are actively engaged in upholding human and civil rights for all Americans.
- The The group has been criticized for alleged links to Islamic terrorism and it has been designated as a terrorist group by the United Arab Emirates.[188]
- The Los Angeles and with offices in Washington, D.C. MPAC was founded in 1988. The mission of MPAC "encompasses promoting an American Muslim identity, fostering an effective grassroots organization, and training a future generation of men and women to share our vision. MPAC also works to promote an accurate portrayal of Islam and Muslims in mass media and popular culture, educating the American public (both Muslim and non-Muslim) about Islam, building alliances with diverse communities and cultivating relationships with opinion- and decision-makers."[189]
- The American Islamic Congress is a small secular Muslim organization that promotes "religious pluralism". Their official Statement of Principles states that "Muslims have been profoundly influenced by their encounter with America. American Muslims are a minority group, consisting largely of immigrants and children of immigrants, who have prospered in America's climate of religious tolerance and civil rights. The lessons of our unprecedented experience of acceptance and success must be carefully considered by our community."[190] The AIC holds an annual essay writing competition, the Dream Deferred Essay Contest, focusing on civil rights in the Middle East.
- The Free Muslims Coalition states it was created to "eliminate broad base support for Islamic extremism and terrorism" and to strengthen secular democratic institutions in the Middle East and the Muslim World by supporting Islamic reformation efforts.[191]
- Muslims for Bush was an advocacy group aiming to drum up support from Muslims for President George W. Bush. It was co-founded by Muhammad Ali Hasan and his mother Seeme, who were prominent donors to the Republican Party. In 2010, co-founder Muhammad Ali Hasan left the Republican Party. Muslims for Bush has since been reformed into the bipartisan Muslims for America.
- American Muslim Political Action Committee (AMPAC) was created in July 2012 by MD Rabbi Alam, a Bangladeshi-born American politician. This newly created organization is one of America's largest Muslim civil liberties advocacy organizations. It is headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, with two regional offices in New York City and Madison, Wisconsin. AMPAC a bipartisan political platform for Muslim Americans to participate in political races. AMPAC presents an Islamic perspective on issues of importance to the American public, and seeks to empower the American Muslim community and encourage its social and political activism. On September 11, 2013, AMPAC organized the Million Muslim March which took place at the National Mall in Washington, D.C.[192][193]
- The Islamic Center of Passaic County, the American Arab Civic Organization, and the American Muslim Union, all based in Paterson, New Jersey, voice Muslims' opposition to terrorism, including the November 2015 Paris attacks.[194]
- In November 2022, Nabeela Syed was elected as the first state legislature. In the Illinois 51st district, she defeated the a republican incumbent. She is also one of the very few Muslim women and youngest political figures at the age of 23.[195]
Charitable
Charitable donations within the Muslim American community are impacted by domestic political and social climates. ISPU found in 2017 that, “23% of Muslim Americans increased their giving to organizations associated with their faith community and 18% joined, donated to, or volunteered at a civic organizations for the first time as a result of the 2016 national elections.[165] A 2021 study showed that Muslim Americans donated more to charity than other Americans during 2020. Most of the donations were given to causes supporting poverty relief, COVID-19 relief, civil rights, and religious research.[196]
In addition to the organizations listed above, other Muslim organizations in the United States serve more specific needs. For example, some organizations focus almost exclusively on charity work. As a response to a crackdown on Muslim charity organizations working overseas such as the Holy Land Foundation, more Muslims have begun to focus their charity efforts within the United States.
- Inner-City Muslim Action Network (IMAN) is one of the leading Muslim charity organizations in the United States. According to the Inner-City Muslim Action Network, IMAN seeks "to utilize the tremendous possibilities and opportunities that are present in the community to build a dynamic and vibrant alternative to the difficult conditions of inner city life." IMAN sees understanding Islam as part of a larger process to empower individuals and communities to work for the betterment of humanity.[197]
- Islamic Relief USA is the American branch of Islamic Relief Worldwide, an international relief and development organization. Its stated goal is "to alleviate the suffering, hunger, illiteracy and diseases worldwide without regard to color, race or creed." They focus on development projects; emergency relief projects, such as providing aid to victims of Hurricane Katrina; orphans projects; and seasonal projects, such as food distributions during the month of Ramadan. They provide aid internationally and in the United States.[198]
- Project Downtown is a non profit organization originated in Miami Fl. From what started as two men giving away a few sandwiches eventually turned into an array of chapters all over the United States giving away thousands of packets of food, hygiene bags, clothes, and other necessities of life to those who cannot afford it. The motto of Project Downtown is "We feed you for the sake of God alone, no reward do we seek, nor thanks." (Quran 76:9)
- Compassionate Care Network, Chicago, CCNchicago was formed 14 years ago to offer basic health screening for the uninsured population in the community. It offers health screening for obesity, hypertension, diabetes and health awareness for the indigent people. It has formed a network of 200 providers and enrolled several thousand patients. In 2014 CCN's work was recognized with honors from the Governor of Illinois and also by President Obama at the White House. In 2015 CCN was invited to participate in White House policy recommendation discussions with the US Dept of Health and Human Services Office of Faith Based and Neighborhood Partnerships.
- American Muslim Health Professionals is a nonprofit organization, founded in 2004, which aims to unite Muslim health professionals and provide information on health. They also provide information on mental health. Another of their goals is to connect Muslim Americans to affordable insurance and free health clinics.[199]
Cultural
There are two museums dedicated to the history of Islamic culture in the U.S. and abroad. The International Museum of Muslim Cultures in Jackson, Mississippi opened in early 2001.[200] America's Islamic Heritage Museum, in Washington, D.C., opened on April 30, 2011.[201]
There are also numerous cultural organizations centering the Muslim community in the U.S.
- Muslim Writers Collective (MWC) is one of the leading Muslim arts and culture organizations in the United States, founded in 2014 in New York City, and holding monthly open mics across the country. According to a Vice magazine article published in 2016, "At a time when Islamophobia has reached new virulent and violent heights, MWC provides a space for young Muslims to honor their humanity."[202]
Research and think tanks
The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, with offices in Dearborn, MI and Washington, DC, is an independent, nonpartisan research organization specializing in addressing the most pressing challenges facing the American Muslim community and in bridging the information gap between the American Muslim community and the wider society.
Views
American populace's views on Islam
A nationwide survey conducted in 2003 by the Pew Research Center and the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life reported that the percentage of Americans with an unfavorable view of Islam increased by one percentage point between 2002 and 2003 to 34%, and then by another two percentage points in 2005 to 36%. At the same time the percentage responding that Islam was more likely than other religion to encourage violence fell from 44% in July 2003 to 36% in July 2005.[203]
July 2007 Newsweek survey of non-Muslim Americans[204] | ||
---|---|---|
Statement | Agree | Disagree |
Muslims in the United States are as loyal to the U.S. as they are to Islam |
40% | 32% |
Muslims do not condone violence | 63% | |
Qur'an does not condone violence | 40% | 28% |
Muslim culture does not glorify suicide |
41% | |
Concern about Islamic radicals | 54% | |
Support wiretapping by FBI | 52% | |
American Muslims more "peaceable" than non-American ones |
52% | 7% |
Muslims are unfairly targeted by law enforcement |
38% | 52% |
Oppose mass detentions of Muslims | 60% | 25% |
Believe most are immigrants | 52% | |
Would allow son or daughter to date a Muslim |
64% | |
Muslim students should be allowed to wear headscarves |
69% | 23% |
Would vote for a qualified Muslim for political office |
45% | 45% |
The July 2005 Pew survey also showed that 59% of American adults view Islam as "very different from their religion," down one percentage point from 2003. In the same survey 55% had a favorable opinion of Muslim Americans, up four percentage points from 51% in July 2003.[203] A December 2004 Cornell University survey shows that 47% of Americans believe that the Islamic religion is more likely than others to encourage violence among its believers.[205]
A CBS April 2006 poll showed that, in terms of faiths[206]
- 58% of Americans have favorable attitudes toward Protestantism/Other Christians
- 48% favorable toward Catholicism
- 47% favorable toward Judaism
- 31% favorable toward Christian fundamentalism
- 20% favorable toward Mormonism
- 19% favorable toward Islam
- 8% favorable toward Scientology
The Pew survey shows that, in terms of adherents[203]
- 77% of Americans have favorable opinions of Jews
- 73% favorable of Catholics
- 57% favorable of "evangelical Christians"
- 55% favorable of Muslims
- 35% favorable of Atheists
Pew surveys conducted in 2014, 2017, and 2019 continued this trend showing Americans had the least favorable views toward Muslims and Atheists.[207]
A 2011
A 2016 poll found that on average; Americans believed that 17% of the US population was Muslim and that this number would rise to 23% by 2020.[211]
A 2018 poll by The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that 86% of Americans report wanting to, “live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity.”[168] 95% of American Jews and 78% of white Evangelicals agreed. The study also found that 66% of Americans agree that “the negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country.” Breaking down the results by faith community, 78% of Muslims and non-affiliated Americans agreed, contrasted with only 45% of white Evangelicals. Most Americans oppose banning the building of mosques (79%), the surveillance of U.S. mosques (63%), and a ‘Muslim Ban’ (~63%).[168] Most Americans also take issue with the collective blaming of Muslims for the acts of individuals, and 69% of those surveyed believe Muslims are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else. ISPU writes that, “Though at a lower rate, the majority of Americans (55%) say that most Muslims living in the United States are committed to the well-being of America.”[168]
According to a research by the New America foundation and the American Muslim Initiative found in 2018, 56 percent of Americans believed Islam was compatible with American values and 42 percent said it was not. About 60 percent believed US Muslims were as patriotic as others, while 38 percent they were not.The study also found that a big majority of Americans - 74 percent - accepted there was "a lot" of bigotry against Muslims existed. Researchers also found that Republicans were more likely to hold negative perceptions of Muslims with 71 percent.[212]
A 2021 Pew study found that 78% of Americans believe Muslims face discrimination, which was a higher percentage than for other religions.[213]
American Muslims' views of the United States
Pew's poll of views on American Society[214] | ||
---|---|---|
Statement | U.S. Muslim |
General public |
Agree that one can get ahead with hard work |
71% | 64% |
Rate their community as "excellent" or "good" |
72% | 82% |
Excellent or good personal financial situation |
42% | 49% |
Satisfied with the state of the U.S. |
38% | 32% |
In a 2007 survey titled Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream, the Pew Research Center found Muslim Americans to be "largely integrated, happy with their lives, and moderate with respect to many of the issues that have divided Muslims and Westerners around the world."[214]
47% of respondents said they considered themselves Muslims first and Americans second. However, this was compared to 81% of British Muslims and 69% of German Muslims, when asked the equivalent question. A similar disparity exists in income, the percentage of American Muslims living in poverty is 2% higher than the general population, compared to an 18% disparity for French Muslims and 29% difference for Spanish Muslims.[214]
Politically, American Muslims both supported larger government and are socially conservative. Despite their social conservatism, 71% of American Muslims expressed a preference for the Democratic Party.[214] The Pew Research survey also showed that nearly three quarters of respondents believed that American society rewards them for hard work regardless of their religious background.[215]
The same poll also reported that 40% of U.S. Muslims believe that Arab Muslims carried out the 9/11 attacks. Another 28% do not believe it and 32% said they had no opinion. Among the 28% who doubted that Arab Muslims were behind the conspiracy, one-fourth said the U.S. government or President George W. Bush was responsible. 26% of American Muslims believe the U.S.-led "war on terror" is a sincere effort to root out international terrorism. 5% of those surveyed had a "very favorable" or "somewhat favorable" view of Al-Qaeda. 35% of American Muslims stated that the decision for military action in Afghanistan was the right one and 12% supported the use of military force in Iraq.[214]
Although American Muslims do report feeling discriminated against as a religious minority, they are just as likely as the general public (81%) to say they value their American Identity. In fact, a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding asserts that, “a higher religious identity correlates with a higher American identity among all Americans, especially Muslims.”[168]
American Muslims' views on LGBT issues
Similarly to the broader American public, U.S. Muslims have become more accepting of homosexuality in recent years.[216] In a 2007 poll conducted by Pew Research Center, 27% of American Muslims believed that homosexuality should be accepted. In a 2011 poll, that percentage had risen to 39%. In a July 2017 poll, Muslims who say homosexuality should be accepted by society outnumber those who say it should be discouraged (52% of respondents, versus 33%), a level of acceptance similar to U.S. Protestants (52% in 2016).[216] According to research by the Public Religion Research Institute's 2017 American Values Atlas, 51% of American Muslims favor same-sex marriage, while 34% are opposed.[217]
American Muslim life after the September 11 attacks
After the September 11 attacks, America saw an increase in the number of hate crimes committed against people who were perceived to be Muslim, particularly those of Middle Eastern and South Asian descent. More than 20 acts of discrimination and violence were documented in the post 9/11 era by the U.S. Department of Justice.[218] Some of these acts were against Muslims living in America. Other acts were against those accused of being Muslims, such as Sikhs, and people of Arabian and South-Asian backgrounds[218] A publication in Journal of Applied Social Psychology found evidence that the number of anti-Muslim attacks in America in 2001 increased from 354 to 1,501 following 9/11.[219] The same year, the Arab American Institute reported an increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes ranging from discrimination and destruction of private property to violent threats and assaults, some of which resulted in deaths.[220][221][222]
In a 2007 survey, 53% of American Muslims reported that it was more difficult to be a Muslim after the 9/11 attacks. Asked to name the most important problem facing them, the options named by more than ten percent of American Muslims were discrimination (19%), being viewed as a terrorist (15%), public's ignorance about Islam (13%), and stereotyping (12%). 54% believe that the U.S. government's anti-terrorism activities single out Muslims. 76% of surveyed Muslim Americans stated that they are very or somewhat concerned about the rise of Islamic extremism around the world, while 61% express a similar concern about the possibility of Islamic extremism in the United States.[214]
On a small number of occasions Muslim women who wore distinctive hijab were harassed, causing some Muslim women to stay at home, while others temporarily abandoned the practice. In November 2009 Amal Abusumayah, a mother of four young girls, had her hijab pulled following derogatory comments while grocery shopping.[223] In 2006, one California woman was shot dead as she walked her child to school; she was wearing a headscarf and relatives and Muslim leaders believe that the killing was religiously motivated.[224][225] While 51% of American Muslims express worry that women wearing hijab will be treated poorly, 44% of American Muslim women who always wear hijab express a similar concern.[214]
In 2011, The Learning Channel (TLC) broadcast a television series, All-American Muslim, depicting the lives of different American Muslims in Dearborn, Michigan.[226]
Even 16 years after 9/11, studies show that 42% Muslim Americans report bullying of their children in school because of their faith. One in four bullying incidents involving Muslims is rerouted to have involved a teacher or other school official. Policies regarding immigration and airport security have also impacted Muslim American Lives after 9/11, with Muslims being twice as likely as any other faith group surveyed to be stopped at the border for additional screening. 67% of Muslims who were stopped at a US border also reported that they were easily identifiable as a member of their faith group. The climate of the 2016 presidential election and the policies that followed have also affected the lives and sentiments of Muslims Americans when it comes to their own safety. Muslims and Jews are, “most likely to express fear for their personal safety or that of their family from white supremacist groups as a result of the 2016 elections.” Overall, the majority of nonwhite Muslims do report some level of race-based discrimination in the past year. When it comes to religious based discrimination, Muslim Americans as a whole were the most likely faith group to report it.
Controversy
A 2011 Pew poll reported support for extremism among Muslim Americans is negligible.[227] The poll indicated all segments of the Muslim American population were opposed to violence and to a correlation between support for suicide bombing and religiosity measures.[227] A 2007 Pew poll reported that very few Muslim Americans (1%) supported suicide bombings against civilian targets in at least some circumstances, with 81% reporting that suicide bombings and other forms of violence against civilians are never justified.[227] Favorable views towards Al Qaeda were held by a comparably smaller percentage among Muslim Americans, 2% very favorable and 3% somewhat favorable.[227] 15% of American Muslims under the age of 30 supported suicide bombings against civilian targets in at least some circumstances, on the other hand, 11% said it could be "rarely justified" in a 2007 Pew poll. Among those over the age of 30, just 6% expressed their support for the same. (9% of Muslims over 30 and 5% under 30 chose not to answer).[214]
Terrorism that involved Muslim perpetrators began in the United States with the
Between 2001 and the end of 2009, there were 46 publicly reported incidents of "domestic radicalization and recruitment to jihadist terrorism" that involved at least 125 people between 2001 and the end of 2009. There had been an average of six cases per year since 2001, but that rose to 13 in 2009.[228]
While the seeming increase in cases may be alarming, half "involve single individuals, while the rest represent ‘tiny conspiracies,’ " according to Congressional testimony.[229] Furthermore, a 2012 study by the University of North Carolina indicated that the yearly number of cases of alleged plots by Muslim-Americans appears to be declining. The total of 20 indictments for terrorism in 2011 is down from 26 in 2010 and 47 in 2009 (the total since 9/11 is 193). The number of Muslim-Americans indicted for support of terrorism also fell, from 27 individuals in 2010 to just eight in 2011 (the total since 9/11 stands at 462).[230][231] Also in apparent decline is the number of actual attacks: Of the 20 suspects indicted for terrorism, only one was charged with carrying out a terrorist act. This number is down from the six individuals charged with attacks in 2010.[231]
Muslim Americans are significantly represented among those who tip authorities off to alleged plots having given 52 of the 140 documented tips regarding individuals involved in violent terrorist plots since 9/11 up to 2012.[230][231]
The
Some Muslim Americans have been criticized because of perceived conflicts between their religious beliefs and mainstream American
Jihadist extremism
At least one American not of recent immigrant background,
Another American that was not of recent immigrant background,
In 2015 four U.S. Marines were killed and three injured in Chattanooga, Tennessee by a twenty four-year-old Kuwaiti man,[238] a naturalized US citizen with an engineering degree.[239]
Islamophobia
According to a 2011 Gallup poll, over the preceding decade, there had been an increase in Islamophobia, which it defined as "an exaggerated fear, hatred, and hostility toward Islam and Muslims that is perpetuated by negative stereotypes resulting in bias, discrimination, and the marginalization and exclusion of Muslims from social, political, and civic life."[240] Another 2011 poll provided by The Washington Post[241] through the Public Religion Research Institute states that 48 percent of Americans are uncomfortable with Muslim women wearing the burqa. A 2014 Pew Research Center survey found that Muslims were the most disliked religious group in the United States with an average "cold" rating of 40 (out of 100), which is lower than the 41 cold ratings received by atheists.[242] According to a poll in November 2015 by the Public Religion Research Institute 56 percent of Americans believe that the values of Islam are at odds with the American values and ways of life.[243]
Public institutions in the U.S. have also drawn fire for accommodating Islam at the expense of taxpayers. The University of Michigan–Dearborn and a public college in Minnesota have been criticized for accommodating Islamic prayer rituals by constructing footbaths for Muslim students using taxpayer money. Critics said this special accommodation, which is made to satisfy the needs of Muslims alone, is a violation of Constitutional provisions separating church and state.[244] Along the same constitutional lines, a San Diego public elementary school is being criticized for making special accommodations, specifically for American Muslims, by adding Arabic to its curriculum and giving breaks for Muslim prayers. Some critics said exceptions have not been made for any religious group in the past, and they see this as an endorsement of Islam.[245]
The first American Muslim Congressman,
In April 2018, former President
2018 ISPU Poll
Most Muslims living in the United States... (% Net agree shown) | Muslim | Jewish | Catholic | Protestant | White Evangelical | Non-Affiliated | General Public |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Are more prone to violence | 18% | 15% | 12% | 13% | 23% | 8% | 13% |
Discriminate against women | 12% | 23% | 29% | 30% | 36% | 18% | 26% |
Are hostile to the United States | 12% | 13% | 9% | 14% | 23% | 8% | 12% |
Are less civilized than other people | 8% | 6% | 4% | 6% | 10% | 1% | 6% |
Are partially responsible for acts of violence carried out by other Muslims | 10% | 16% | 11% | 12% | 14% | 8% | 12% |
Index (0 min - 100 max) | 17 | 22 | 22 | 31 | 40 | 14 | 24 |
My faith identity/ community... (% Net agree shown) | Muslim | Jewish | Catholic | Protestant | White Evangelical | Non-Affiliated | General Public |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Is a source of happiness | 85% | 72% | 73% | 81% | 94% | 34% | 68% |
Contributes to society | 85% | 91% | 78% | 79% | 95% | 44% | 71% |
Makes me proud | 86% | 87% | 85% | 83% | 95% | 37% | 72% |
Index | 87 | 86 | 82 | 85 | 93 | 58 | 78 |
In the American Muslim Poll 2018, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding set out "to measure the level of public anti-Muslim sentiment" in the United States.[249] The following graph shows data across six different faith populations in the United States, and their answers to the two questions below ("W. Evang." is short for White Evangelical, the specific demographic surveyed):[249]
Question 1: Some people think that for the military to target and kill civilians is sometimes justified, while others think that this kind of violence is never justified. Which is your opinion?
Question 2: Some people think that for an individual or a small group of people to target and kill civilians is sometimes justified, while others think that this kind of violence is never justified. Which is your opinion?
- Question 1 (% Never Justified)
- Question 2 (% Never Justified)
The following graph contains additional data collected by ISPU during their 2018 poll. The following statements were posed to participants and they were asked to answer on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The chart below shows the total percentage from each American faith demographic that agreed with the statements below. (Note: "W. Evang." is short for White Evangelical, the specific demographic surveyed.)
Question 1: I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity
Question 2: The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country
Question 3: Most Muslims living in the United States are committed to the wellbeing of America
Question 4: Most people associate negative stereotypes with my faith identity
- Question 1 (% Net agree)
- Question 2 (% Net agree)
- Question 3 (% Net agree)
- Question 4 (% Net agree)
See also
- Islam in New York City
- Islam in Canada
- Ahmadiyya in the United States
- List of American Muslims
- List of Islamic and Muslim related topics
- List of mosques in the United States
- Latino Muslims
- Religious school
- United States military chaplain symbols(including images of U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force Muslim Chaplain insignia)
- American Islam (term)
Notes
References
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- ^ Abdalla J. (4 Feb 2022). ‘Empty promises’: The US’s ‘Muslim ban’ still reverberates AlJazeera. Accessed 9 April 2023.
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Primary sources
- Curtis IV, Edward E., ed. Columbia Sourcebook of Muslims in the United States (2007), 472 pp. table of contents
Further reading
- Beydoun, Khaled A. (2018). American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520297791.
- Curtis IV, Edward E. Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History (2010), 715 pp.
- Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C., (2013). Sunni-Muslim American Religious Development during Emerging Adulthood, Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(6), 690–714
- GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz. A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 416 pp; chronicles the Muslim presence in America across five centuries.
- Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, Jane I. Smith, and Kathleen M. Moore. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today (2006)
- ISBN 978-0-7103-1108-5(2005)
- Kidd, Thomas. S. American Christians and Islam – Evangelical Culture and Muslims from the Colonial Period to the Age of Terrorism, ISBN 978-0-691-13349-2
- Koszegi, Michael A., and J. Gordon Melton, eds. Islam In North America (Garland Reference Library of Social Science) (1992)
- Marable, Manning; Aidi, Hishaam D, eds. (2009). Black Routes to Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8400-5.
- Naqvi, S. Kaazim. Chicago Muslims and the Transformation of American Islam: Immigrants, African Americans, and the Building of the American Ummah (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).
- Smith, Jane I; Islam in America (2nd ed. 2009)
External links
- Events
- FriendlyCombatant.com Archived December 21, 2018, at the Wayback Machine[dead link]
- Islam on Capitol Hill (Internet home of Islam affirmation event at Capitol Hill on September 25, 2009)
- Islamic Center of Beverly Hills
- Muslim American Outreach
- Guides and reference listings
- GaramChai.com: Mosques (listings of mosques in the United States)
- Academia and news
- The Muslim Journal
- Allied Media Corporation: Muslim American Market: MUSLIM AMERICAN MEDIA
- The As-Sunnah Foundation of America: The Islamic Community In The United States: Historical Development Archived March 8, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- DinarStandard: The Untapped American Muslim Consumer Market
- Euro Islam.info: Islam in the United States
- Internet Archive: An Oral History of Islam in Pittsburgh (2006)
- OnIslam.net: What Goes First for American Muslims: A Guide to A Better-engaged Community
- OnIslam.net: Politicking U.S. Muslims: How Can U.S. Muslims Change Realities – Interview with Dr. Salah Soltan
- OnIslam.net: US Muslims: The Social Angle – Interview with Dr. Mazen Hashem
- Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance: How many Muslims are there in the U.S. and the rest of the world? Archived June 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life: Muslims Widely Seen As Facing Discrimination
- Pew Research Center: Publications: Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream
- The Pluralism Project at Harvard University: Distribution of Muslim Centers in the U.S. Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- Qantara.de: African-American Muslims: The American Values of Islam Archived August 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- San Francisco State University: Media Guide to Islam: Timeline of Islam in the United States
- Social Science Research Network: What Every Political Leader in America and the West should Know about the Arab-Islamic World
- Spiegel.de, A Lesson for Europe: American Muslims strive to become model citizens
- United States Institute of Peace: The Diversity of Muslims in the United States: Views as Americans
- TIME: Muslim in America (photo essay)
- Valparaiso University: Muslims as a Percentage of all Residents, 2000
- Growing Up in 9/11 Shadow OnIslam.net
- In 9/11 Memory, U.S. Faiths Urge Unity OnIslam.net
- History
- Muslim Legacy in Early Americas
- The History of Muslim in America
- Manseau, Peter (February 9, 2015). "The Muslims of Early America". The New York Times.