Islamic art
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Islamic art is a part of
The early developments of Islamic art were influenced by
Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of
Both religious and
Terminology
Although the concept of "Islamic art" has been put into question by some modern art historians as a construct of Western cultural views,[9][10][11] the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Muslim world, especially in the Islamic Golden Age, have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use as a useful classification since the late 19th century. Scholars such as Jacelyn K. Kerner have drawn attention to its wide-ranging scope referring to more than 40 nations and to the growing public interest both in Western as well as, more recently, in Muslim societies.[12] Further, the List of Islamic museums bears witness to this art historical term having found wide acceptance.
The Encyclopædia Britannica defines "Islamic arts" as including visual arts, literature, performing arts and music that "virtually defies any comprehensive definition". In a strict sense, the term might only refer to artistic manifestations that are closely related to religious practice. Most often, however, it is meant to include "all of the arts produced by Muslim peoples, whether connected with their religion or not."[4]
Calligraphy
Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, where, as in Europe in the Middle Ages, religious exhortations, including Qur'anic verses, may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles and metalwork, and most painted miniatures include some script, as do many buildings. Use of Islamic calligraphy in architecture extended significantly outside of Islamic territories; one notable example is the use of Chinese calligraphy of Arabic verses from the Qur'an in the Great Mosque of Xi'an.[13] Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and metalwork.[14] Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or sculptures is sometimes referred to as Quranic art.[15]
The various forms of traditional Arabic calligraphy and decoration of the manuscripts used for written versions of the Qur'an represent a central tradition of Islamic visual art. The arabesque is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God.[14] Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory has also been disputed.[16][17][18]
East Persian pottery from the 9th to 11th centuries, decorated only with highly stylised inscriptions and called "epigraphic ware", has been described as "probably the most refined and sensitive of all Persian pottery".
The main languages, all using
appearing in later centuries. Calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists.Painting
While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned upon in many Islamic cultures and connected with
Although there has been a tradition of wall-paintings, especially in the
The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of
both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors, and more purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized. Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex.Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a birds-eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours, which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th.
Since the mid-20th century following the departure of the Dutch colonialists, several Indonesian painters combined
Rugs and carpets
No Islamic artistic product has become better known outside the Islamic world than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the Oriental carpet (oriental rug). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray). They have been a major export to other areas since the late Middle Ages, used to cover not only floors but tables, for long a widespread European practice that is now common only in the Netherlands. Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in large city factories as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In earlier periods, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage.[22]
Very early Islamic carpets, i.e. those before the 16th century, are extremely rare. More have survived in the West and oriental carpets in Renaissance painting from Europe are a major source of information on them, as they were valuable imports that were painted accurately.[23] The most natural and easy designs for a carpet weaver to produce consist of straight lines and edges, and the earliest Islamic carpets to survive or be shown in paintings have geometric designs, or centre on very stylized animals, made up in this way. Since the flowing loops and curves of the arabesque are central to Islamic art, the interaction and tension between these two styles was long a major feature of carpet design.
There are a few survivals of the grand Egyptian 16th century carpets, including one almost as good as new discovered in the attic of the
As well as the major Persian, Turkish and Arab centres, carpets were also made across Central Asia, in India, and in Spain and the Balkans. Spanish carpets, which sometimes interrupted typical Islamic patterns to include
Ceramics
Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in
Islamic pottery was
The
The medieval Islamic world also had pottery with painted animal and human imagery. Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt.[33]
Tiling
The earliest grand Islamic buildings, like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, had interior walls decorated with mosaics in the Byzantine style, but without human figures. From the 9th century onwards the distinctive Islamic tradition of glazed and brightly coloured tiling for interior and exterior walls and domes developed. Some earlier schemes create designs using mixtures of tiles each of a single colour that are either cut to shape or are small and of a few shapes, used to create abstract geometric patterns. Later large painted schemes use tiles painted before firing with a part of the scheme – a technique requiring confidence in the consistent results of firing.
Some elements, especially the letters of inscriptions, may be moulded in three-dimensional relief, and in especially in Persia certain tiles in a design may have figurative painting of animals or single human figures. These were often part of designs mostly made up of tiles in plain colours, but with larger fully painted tiles at intervals. The larger tiles are often shaped as eight-pointed stars, and may show animals or a human head or bust, or plant or other motifs. The geometric patterns, such as modern North African zellij work, made of small tiles each of a single colour but different and regular shapes, are often referred to as "mosaic", which is not strictly correct.
The Mughals made much less use of tiling, preferring (and being able to afford) "parchin kari", a type of pietra dura decoration from inlaid panels of semi-precious stones, with jewels in some cases. This can be seen at the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and other imperial commissions. The motifs are usually floral, in a simpler and more realistic style than Persian or Turkish work, relating to plants in Mughal miniatures.
Glass
For most of the Middle Ages Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in
Between the 8th and early 11th centuries the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief.
Lustre painting, by techniques similar to
Metalwork
Medieval Islamic metalwork offers a complete contrast to its European equivalent, which is dominated by modelled figures and brightly coloured decoration in enamel, some pieces entirely in precious metals. In contrast surviving Islamic metalwork consists of practical objects mostly in brass, bronze, and steel, with simple, but often monumental shapes, and surfaces highly decorated with dense decoration in a variety of techniques, but colour mostly restricted to inlays of gold, silver, copper or black niello. The most abundant survivals from medieval periods are fine brass objects, handsome enough to preserve, but not valuable enough to be melted down. The abundant local sources of zinc, compared to tin, explains the rarity of bronze. Household items, such as ewers or water pitchers, were made of one or more pieces of sheet brass, soldered together and subsequently worked and inlaid.[43]
The use of drinking and eating vessels in gold and silver, the ideal in ancient Rome and Persia as well as medieval Christian societies, is prohibited by the Hadiths, as was the wearing of gold rings.[44] Islamic metalworkers shared with their European counterparts a relatively high social status, compared to other artists and craftsmen, and many larger pieces are signed.
Islamic metalwork includes some three-dimensional animal figures, such as fountainheads or
Other applied arts
High levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including hardstone carvings and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles and leatherwork. During the Middle Ages, Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world and often traded outside the Islamic zone. Apart from miniature painting and calligraphy, other arts of the book are decorative illumination, the only type found in Qur'an manuscripts, and Islamic book covers, which are often highly decorative in luxury manuscripts, using either the geometric motifs found in illumination, or sometimes figurative images probably drawn for the craftsmen by miniature painters. Materials include coloured, tooled and stamped leather and lacquer over paint.[49]
Precious stones
House and furniture
Older wood carving is typically relief or pierced work on flat objects for architectural use, such as screens, doors, roofs, beams and friezes. An important exception are the complex
Ivory
Silk
Despite Other silks were used for clothes, hangings, altarcloths, and church vestments, which have nearly all been lost, except for some vestments.
Ottoman silks were less exported, and the many surviving royal kaftans have simpler geometric patterns, many featuring stylized "tiger-stripes" below three balls or circles. Other silks have foliage designs comparable to those on Iznik pottery or carpets, with bands forming ogival compartments a popular motif. Some designs begin to show Italian influence. By the 16th century Persian silk was using smaller patterns, many of which showed relaxed garden scenes of beautiful boys and girls from the same world as those in contemporary album miniatures, and sometimes identifiable scenes from Persian poetry. A 16th-century circular ceiling for a tent, 97 cm across, shows a continuous and crowded hunting scene; it was apparently looted by the army of Suleiman the Magnificent in his invasion of Persia in 1543–45, before being taken by a Polish general at the Siege of Vienna in 1683. Mughal silks incorporate many Indian elements, and often feature relatively realistic "portraits" of plants, as found in other media.[57]
Indonesian batik
The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik. However, mythical serpents, humans with exaggerated features and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are common motifs.
Although its existence pre-dates Islam, batik reached its zenith in royal Muslim courts such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose sultans encouraged and patronised batik production. Today, batik is undergoing a revival, and cloths are used for additional purposes such as wrapping the Quran.
Architecture
Unlike some mediums in Islamic art, Islamic architecture was consistently prominent across the Islamic world. In general, patrons invested more resources into building monuments than they did in the production of art objects and our knowledge of Islamic architecture is more complete thanks to the many buildings that have survived across regions and periods.[58] Early Islamic architecture drew on existing regional traditions of architecture in late antiquity and later developed into various regional traditions. Innovations from one region often spread to others.[58][59]
Applied decoration played a particularly important role in Islamic architecture, and this decoration made use of the same motifs predominant in other forms of Islamic art: arabesques, epigraphy, geometric patterns, and other vegetal forms. Methods of decoration included carving, inlay, and painting in materials such as brick, stone, tile, plaster, and wood.[58]
History
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Beginnings
Pre-dynastic
The period of a rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present-day Syria. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or Sasanian and Byzantine art, and the conversion of the mass of the population, including artists, took a significant period, sometimes centuries, after the initial spread of Islam. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the Louvre, whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Plant motifs were the most important in these early productions.
Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. Bedouin tribal traditions mixed with the more sophisticated styles of the conquered territories. For an initial period coins had human figures in the Byzantine and Sassanian style, perhaps to reassure users of their continued value, before the Islamic style with lettering only took over.
Umayyad
Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyad Caliphates
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold ground, and a central plan that recalls that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qusayr 'Amra, and Hisham's Palace) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated, including some wall-paintings, to promote an image of royal luxury.
Work in ceramics was still somewhat primitive and unglazed during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period.
'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions, instead of images of the monarch. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome of the Rock's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art.
In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian late antiquity, which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the arabesque, which appears both on monuments and in illuminated Qurans.
Some Umayyads commissioned
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258[62]) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. Art historian Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic Rome", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world", as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote.[63]
The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated well, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Abbasid Samarra, which was largely abandoned, has been well studied, and is known for its surviving examples of stucco reliefs, in which the prehistory of the arabesque can be traced. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran.
Samarra witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of
Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as tiraz produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation was not as important as its cash value along the Silk Road.
Islamic calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated qur'ans gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves.[65]
Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)
Beginning in the ninth century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of an
Spain and the Maghreb
The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Iberia, known in Arabic as
Al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes), the territory was an equally vital center for art.
Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The
The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork.
Arab Mashriq
The Fatimid Caliphate, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171, introduced crafts and knowledge from politically troubled Baghdad to their capital of Cairo.
By 1070, the
In 1250,
Iran and Central Asia
Iran and the north of India, the
(which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze.The
Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals.[67] Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.[68]
Innovations in ceramics from this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste ("fritware"), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage.[69]
During the 13th century, the Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided among his sons, forming many dynasties: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia.
Ilkhanids
A rich civilization developed under these "little khans", who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of "iranisation" took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the "Iranian plan" mosques, was resumed. The
The Golden Horde and the Timurids
The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the Hermitage.
The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the Timurids, was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of Timur. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, but also a multitude of workshops and patrons.
Syria, Iraq, Anatolia
The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period.
The
Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century book frontispieces.
Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic epigraphs, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature astrological, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images.
Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the earliest "coffee table books". They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.[70]
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent, some northern parts of which conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the
The Three Empires
|
Ottomans
The
Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two "
The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, "Iznik red", in ceramics, which reached their height in the 16th century, both in tile-work and pottery, using floral motifs that were considerably transformed from their Chinese and Persian models. From the 18th century, Ottoman art came under considerable European influence, the Turks adopting versions of Rococo which had a lasting and not very beneficial effect, leading to over-fussy decoration.[71] European-style painting was slow to be adopted, with Osman Hamdi Bey (1842-1910) for long a somewhat solitary figure. He was a member of the Ottoman administrative elite who trained in Paris, and painted throughout his long career as a senior administrator and curator in Turkey. Many of his works represent Orientalism from the inside, as it were.
Mughals
The
The arts of jewelry and
The Mughals were also fine metallurgists they introduced
Safavids and Qajars
The Iranian
The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsi's poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new art of the book, depicting one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, often using the grisaille techniques previously used for border paintings for the background.
After the fall of the Safavids, the
Modern period
From the 15th century, the number of smaller Islamic courts began to fall, as the Ottoman Empire, and later the Safavids and European powers, swallowed them up; this had an effect on Islamic art, which was usually strongly led by the patronage of the court. From at least the 18th century onwards, elite Islamic art was increasingly influenced by European styles, and in the applied arts either largely adopted Western styles, or ceased to develop, retaining whatever style was prevalent at some point in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. Many industries with very long histories, such as pottery in Iran, largely closed, while others, like metalwork in brass, became generally frozen in style, with much of their production going to tourists or exported as oriental exotica.[citation needed]
The carpet industry has remained large, but mostly uses designs that originated before 1700, and competes with machine-made imitations both locally and around the world. Arts and crafts with a broader social base, like the zelligj mosaic tiles of the Maghreb, have often survived better. Islamic countries have developed modern and contemporary art, with very vigorous art scenes, but the degree to which these should be grouped in a special category as "Islamic art" is questionable, although many artists deal with Islam-related themes, and use traditional elements such as calligraphy. Further, much modern architecture and interior decoration in the Islamic world makes use of motifs and elements drawn from the heritage of Islamic art.
See also
Notes
- ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4, p.3; Brend, 10
- ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
- ^ MSN Encarta: Islamic Art and architecture. Archived from the original on 2009-10-28.
- ^ a b "Islamic arts | Characteristics, Calligraphy, Paintings, & Architecture". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-10-13.
- OCLC 50238944.
- ^ a b "Figural Representation in Islamic Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- ^ "One group of painters followed a hedonistic orientation toward a festive representation of events and personages, luxurious ornamentation, and wealth of figures and colors; this is illustrated by the miniatures of the Golestān of 1556-57 and the love scenes by the artist ʿAbdallāh in the Būstān of 1575-76 (...). The other group of miniaturists preferred naive genre scenes illustrating folk characteristics, as in the Toḥfat al-aḥrār of the 1670s." "History of art in Iran. viii. Islamic Central Asia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2021-10-17.[failed verification]
- ^ Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15.
- ^ Melikian, Souren (December 5, 2008). "Qatar's Museum of Islamic Art: Despite flaws, a house of masterpieces". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved September 6, 2011.
This is a European construct of the 19th century that gained wide acceptance following a display of Les Arts Musulmans at the old Trocadero palace in Paris during the 1889 Exposition Universelle. The idea of "Islamic art" has even less substance than the notion of "Christian art" from the British Isles to Germany to Russia during the 1000 years separating the reigns of Charlemagne and Queen Victoria might have.
- ^ Melikian, Souren (April 24, 2004). "Toward a clearer vision of 'Islamic' art". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved September 6, 2011.
- JSTOR 3177331.
- ISBN 9781472586902.
- ^ Bondak, Marwa (2017-04-25). "Islamic Art History: An Influential Period". Mozaico. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
- ^ a b Madden (1975), pp.423–430
- ^ Islamic Archaeology in the Sudan - Page 22, Intisar Soghayroun Elzein - 2004
- ^ Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. "Islamic Textile Art: Anomalies in Kilims". Salon du Tapis d'Orient. TurkoTek. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
- ISBN 1-84150-136-0.
- ^ Backhouse, Tim. "Only God is Perfect". Islamic and Geometric Art. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
- ^ Arts, p. 223. see nos. 278–290
- ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8.
Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
- ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
- ISBN 0-13-193455-4pg. 298
- ^ King and Sylvester, throughout, but 9–28, 49–50, & 59 in particular
- ^ King and Sylvester, 27, 61–62, as "The Medici Mamluk Carpet"
- ^ King and Sylvester, 59–66, 79–83
- ^ King and Sylvester: Spanish carpets: 11–12, 50–52; Balkans: 77 and passim
- ^ Mason (1995), p. 5
- .
- ^ Mason (1995), p. 7
- ^ Arts, 206–207
- ^ See Rawson throughout; Canby, 120–123, and see index; Jones & Mitchell, 206–211
- Levantineassistant on the team.
- ISBN 0-87395-602-8.
- ^ Arts, 131, 135. The Introduction (pp. 131–135) is by Ralph Pinder-Wilson, who shared the catalogue entries with Waffiya Essy.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica, "Glass", Online version
- ^ Arts, 131–133
- ^ Arts, 131, 141
- ^ Arts, 141
- ^ Endnote 111 in Roman glass: reflections on cultural change, Fleming, Stuart. see also endnote 110 for Jewish glassworkers
- ^ Arts, 131, 133–135
- ^ Arts, 131–135, 141–146; quote, 134
- ^ Arts, 134–135
- ISBN 978-0-87395-602-4.
- ^ Hadithic texts against gold and silver vessels
- ^ Arts, 201, and earlier pages for animal shapes.
- ^ But see Arts, 170, where the standard view is disputed
- ^ "Base of a ewer with Zodiac medallions [Iran] (91.1.530)". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, July 2011; see also on astrology, Carboni, Stefano. Following the Stars: Images of the Zodiac in Islamic Art. (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1997), 16. The inscription reads: "Bi-l-yumn wa al-baraka…" meaning "With bliss and divine grace…"
- ^ Arts, 157–160, and exhibits 161–204
- ^ See the relevant sections in "Arts"
- ^ Fatimid Rock Crystal Ewers, Most Valuable Objects in Islamic Art
- ^ Arts, 120–121
- Victoria & Albert Museum
- ^ Rogers and Ward, 156
- ^ Arts, 147–150, and exhibits following
- ^ Arts, 65–68; 74, no. 3
- ^ Louvre, Suaire de St-Josse Archived 2011-06-23 at the Wayback Machine. Exhibited as no. 4 in Arts, 74.
- ^ Arts, 68, 71, 82–86, 106–108, 110–111, 114–115
- ^ ISBN 9780195309911.
- ISBN 9789004161658.
- ISBN 978-0-520-23665-3.
- ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar, & Jenkins-Madina, p. 47
- ^ Gruber, World of Art
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.40
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.54
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.58
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.89
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), p.91
- ^ Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4
- ^ Hillenbrand, p.100
- ^ Hillenbrand, p.128-131
- ^ Levey, chapters 5 and 6
References
| History of art |
|---|
Books and journals
- "Arts": Jones, Dalu & Michell, George, (eds); The Arts of Islam, ISBN 0-7287-0081-6
- Ali, Wijdan (2001). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art" (PDF). EJOS. 4 (7). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-12-03.
- Blair, S. Bloom, J. 'The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field'. The Art Bulletin, 2003, 85, 1, 152–184, PDF
- Bloom, Sheila and Jonathan, eds., Rivers of Paradise: Water in Islamic Art and Culture, Yale University Press, 2009.
- Canby, Sheila R. (ed). Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2452-0
- ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4.
- King, Donald and ISBN 0-7287-0362-9
- Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978-0-500-20305-7
- ISBN 0-500-27065-1
- Madden, Edward H. (1975). "Some Characteristics of Islamic Art". Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 33 (4): 423–430. JSTOR 429655.
- Mason, Robert B. (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. XII. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10314-7.
- ISBN 0-7141-1431-6
- Rogers J.M. and Ward R.M.; Süleyman the Magnificent, 1988, British Museum Publications ISBN 0-7141-1440-5
- Savage, George. Porcelain Through the Ages, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963
- Shaw, Wendy. "Islam and Art: An Overview." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion.
- Sinclair, Susan. Bibliography of Art and Architecture in the Islamic World. Volume 1: Art. 2012, BRILL
Further reading
- Abdullahi Y.; Embi M. R. B (2015). "Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On Islamic Architecture". International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR. 9: 31. doi:10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i1.558 (inactive 2024-04-24).)
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link - Carboni, Stefano; Whitehouse, David (2001). Glass of the sultans. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-986-9.
- Darwish, Ali (1984). The arts in Afro-Arab relations: the legacy of Islam in architecture and sculpture. Historical and socio-cultural relations between black Africa and the Arab world from 1935 to the present. UNESCO (ed.) The general history of Africa: studies and documents, no 7. 207 p. ISBN 92-3-102161-3
- Dodds, J.D. (1992). Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-636-8.
- Ekhtiar, Maryam (2012). Art of the Islamic world: a resource for educators. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. OCLC 823578239.
- Shaw, Wendy (2019). What is 'Islamic' Art? Between Religion and Perception. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. S2CID 204371416.
- Wilkinson, Charles K. (1973). Nishapur: pottery of the early Islamic period. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-076-4.
- Abdullahi, Yahya; Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi (2013). "Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns". Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2 (2): 243–251. .
External links
Media related to Islamic art at Wikimedia Commons
- ARCHNET: Islamic Architecture Community: Extensive archive of scholarly articles, full publications and pictures
- Museum With No Frontiers: extensive site on Islamic art
- Victoria & Albert Museum: Islamic Middle East Collections including contemporary pieces
- Museum of Islamic Art, Doha, Qatar:
- MATHAF: Arab Museum of Modern Art Qatar
- CalligraphyIslamic: Extensive site on Islamic calligraphy
- Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Victoria and Albert Museum at the National Gallery of Art, Washington
- Artistic Exchange: Europe and the Islamic World Selections from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art
- Islamic Art Network – Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation
- Islamic Arts & Architecture
- Islamic Art in Modern Architecture
- The Kirkor Minassian Collection at the Library of Congress has decorative Islamic book bindings.
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