Iran

The unification of the Median tribes under king Deioces in 728 BC led to the foundation of the Median Empire and their capital Ecbatana, unifying Iran as a nation for the first time in 625 BC.^[67] By 612 BC, the Medes Empire controlled almost the entire territory of present-day Iran and eastern Anatolia.^[68] This marked the end of the Kingdom of Urartu, which was subsequently conquered and dissolved.^[69][70]

In 550 BC,

Cultural Heritages.

The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, around the time of Darius the Great and Xerxes I

.

In 518 BC, Persepolis was founded by Darius the Great as the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire which, at its greatest extent, was the largest empire the world had yet seen,^[72] and at its peak it ruled over 44% of the world's population.^[73] The Achaemenid Empire is noted for the release of the Jewish exiles in Babylon,^[74] building infrastructures such as the Royal Road and the Chapar (postal service), and the use of an official language, Imperial Aramaic.^[72] In 334 BC, Alexander the Great defeated the last Achaemenid emperor, Darius III, at the Battle of Issus. Following the premature death of Alexander, Iran fell under the control of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.

In the middle of the second century BC, the Parthian Empire rose to become the main power in Iran, and the century-long geopolitical arch-rivalry between the Romans and the Parthians began, culminating in the Roman–Parthian Wars. The Parthian Empire continued as a feudal monarchy for nearly five centuries, until 224 CE, when it was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire.^[75] They and their neighbouring arch-rival, the Roman-Byzantines, were the world's two dominant powers for over four centuries.^[76][77]

The Sasanians established an empire within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with their capital at Ctesiphon. Late antiquity is considered one of Iran's most influential periods, as under the Sasanians,^[78] their influence reached ancient Rome (and through that as far as Western Europe),^[79][80] Africa,^[81] China, and India,^[82] and played a prominent role in the formation of the mediaeval art of both Europe and Asia.^[76][77]

Mediaeval period and Iranian Intermezzo

Falak-ol-Aflak in Khorramabad, built in 240–270 AD during the Sasanian Empire.

The Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD) in 620 at its greatest extent, under Khosrow II.

The prolonged

In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads.^[94] Arabs Muslims and Persians of all strata made up the rebel army, which was united by the converted Persian Muslim, Abu Muslim.^[95][96][97] In their struggle for power, society gradually became cosmopolitan. Persians and Turks began to replace Arabs in most fields. A hierarchy of officials emerged, a bureaucracy at first Persian and later Turkish which decreased Abbasid prestige and power for good.^[98]

After two centuries of Arab rule, various native semi-independent and independent Iranian dynasties in the Iranian Plateau rose, namely the Tahirids, Saffarids, Sajids, Samanids, Ziyarids, Buyids, Sallarids, Rawadids, Marwanids, Shaddadids, Kakuyids, Annazids and Hasanwayhids, appearing on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate.^[99] The period, known as the Iranian Intermezzo, was an interlude between the decline of Abbasid rule and power by Arabs and the "Sunni Revival" with the 11th-century emergence of the Seljuks. It consisted Iranian support based on Iranian territory, and most significantly a revived Iranian national spirit and culture in an Islamic form. It also revived the Persian language, with the most significant Persian-language literature from this period being Shahnameh by Ferdowsi, the country's national epic.^{[100][101][102][103]}

Tomb of Ferdowsi, a 10th-century AD Persian poet and the author of Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran.

The Iranian Intermezzo (821–1055) saw the revival of Persian language, and a revived Iranian national spirit in an Islamic form.

The blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art became major elements in a new age for Iranian civilization, during a period known as the Islamic Golden Age.^[104][105] The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak by the 10th and 11th centuries, during which Iran was the main theatre of scientific activities.^[106] The tenth century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the Iranian Plateau.^[107] Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army as mamluks (slave-warriors).^[95] As a result, the Mamluks gained significant political power. In 999, large portions of Iran came briefly under the rule of the Ghaznavids, and longer subsequently under the Seljuk and Khwarezmian empires.^[107] The Seljuks subsequently gave rise to the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia.^[108][109] The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turco-Persian tradition.

From 1219 to 1221, under the

By the 1500s, Ismail I established the Safavid Empire,^[115][116] with his capital at Tabriz.^[107] Beginning with Azerbaijan, he extended his authority over the Iranian territories, and established an intermittent Iranian hegemony over large parts of Greater Iran.^[117] Iran was predominantly Sunni,^[118] but Ismail instigated a forced conversion to the Shia branch, marking one of the most important turning points in the history of Islam, and the beginning of modern Iranian history.^{[119][120][116][121][122]} As a result, Iran is the only official Shia nation today, with it holding an absolute majority in Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan.^[123][124]

The relationship between the Safavids and the West begins with the presence of the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf from the 16th century, oscillating between alliances and open war between the 17th and 18th century. The Safavid era saw the start of mass integration from

In 1729, Nader Shah successfully drove out and conquered the Pashtun invaders. He took back the annexed Caucasian territories which were divided among the Ottoman and Russian authorities by the ongoing chaos in Iran. During the reign of Nader Shah, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sasanian Empire, reestablishing Iranian hegemony over the Caucasus, as well as other major parts of west and central Asia, and briefly possessing arguably the most powerful empire at the time.^{[125][126][127][125]}

Nader Shah

Compared to its preceding dynasties, the geopolitical reach of the Zand dynasty was limited. Many of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus gained de facto autonomy and were locally ruled through

Agha Mohammad Khan's reign is noted for the return of a centralized and unified Iran and for relocating the capital to Tehran.^[131] In 1795, following the disobedience of the Georgian subjects and their alliance with the Russians, the Qajars captured Tbilisi by the Battle of Krtsanisi, and drove the Russians out of the Caucasus, reestablishing Iranian suzerainty over the region. The Russo-Iranian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 resulted in large territorial losses for Iran in the Caucasus, comprising all of the South Caucasus and Dagestan.^[126] As a result of the 19th-century Russo-Iranian wars, the Russians took over Iran's integral territories in the region (comprising modern-day Dagestan, Georgia, Armenia, and Republic of Azerbaijan), which was confirmed per the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay.^{[127][132][133][134][135][136][137][138]}

The weakening of Persia made it a victim of the colonial struggle between Russia and Britain known as the

Zoroastrians.^[147] The struggle related to the constitutional movement was followed by the Triumph of Tehran in 1909, when Mohammad Ali Shah was forced to abdicate. In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention divided Qajar Iran into influence zones, formalising many of the concessions. On the pretext of restoring order, the Russians occupied northern Iran and Tabriz and maintained a military presence in the region for years. But this did not end the civil uprisings and was soon followed by Mirza Kuchik Khan's Jungle Movement

against both the Qajar monarchy and foreign invaders.

Despite Iran's neutrality during World War I, the Ottoman, Russian, and British Empires occupied western Iran and fought the Persian campaign before fully withdrawing their forces in 1921. At least 2 million Persian civilians died in the fighting, the Ottoman-perpetrated anti-Christian genocides or the war-induced famine of 1917–1919. A large number of Iranian Assyrian and Iranian Armenian Christians, as well as those Muslims who tried to protect them, were victims of mass murders committed by the invading Ottoman troops.^{[148][149][150][151][152]}

Apart from the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the Qajar rule is characterised as misrule.

Prime Minister

and was declared monarch in 1925.

Pahlavis

Main articles: Pahlavi Iran and Pahlavi dynasty

See also: Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran and White Revolution

During

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), prevent a German advance on Baku's oil fields, and limit German influence in Iran. Following the invasion, on 16 September 1941 Reza Shah abdicated and was replaced by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.^{[154][155][156]}

Iran became a major conduit for British and American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through which over 120,000 Polish refugees and Polish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance.^[157] At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied "Big Three"—Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill—issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. However, at the end of the war, Soviet troops established two puppet states in north-western Iran: the People's Government of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Mahabad. This led to the Iran crisis of 1946, one of the first confrontations of the Cold War, which ended after oil concessions were promised to the USSR and Soviet forces withdrew in May 1946. The two puppet states were soon overthrown, and the oil concessions were later revoked.^[158][159]

1951–1978: Mosaddegh, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

Main articles: Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry and 1953 Iranian coup d'état

In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected Prime Minister of Iran. Mosaddegh became enormously popular after he nationalized the oil industry, which had been largely controlled by foreign interests. He worked to weaken the monarchy until he was removed in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état—initially an Anglo-American covert operation that marked the first time the US had participated in an overthrow of a foreign government during the Cold War.^[160]

After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic and sultanistic, and Iran entered a decades-long phase of controversially close relations with the United States and other foreign governments.^[161] While the Shah increasingly modernised Iran and claimed to retain it as a fully secular state,^[162] arbitrary arrests and torture by his secret police, the SAVAK, were used for crushing political opposition.^[163]

Ruhollah Khomeini, a radical Muslim cleric,^[164] became a critic of the Shah's reforms known as the White Revolution. Khomeini publicly denounced the government and was imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, he was eventually sent into exile.

Due to the 1973 spike in oil prices, the economy was flooded with foreign currency, causing inflation. By 1974, Iran was experiencing a double-digit inflation rate, and despite many large projects to modernise the country, corruption was rampant. By 1975 and 1976, a recession increased unemployment, especially among millions of youths who had migrated to the cities looking for construction jobs during the boom years of the early 1970s. By the late 1970s, many of these people opposed the Shah's regime and began protesting against it.^[165]

Iranian Revolution

Main articles: Iranian Revolution, 1979 oil crisis, and Iran hostage crisis

The

a theocratic constitution.^[169]

Immediate uprisings against the new government began with the

purging the non-Islamist political opposition. Although both nationalists and Marxists had initially joined with Islamists to overthrow the Pahlavis, tens of thousands were executed.^[170] Following Khomeini's order to purge the new government of any remaining officials still loyal to Pahlavi, many former ministers and officials in Pahlavi's regime, including former prime minister Amir-Abbas Hoveyda, were executed

.

On 4 November 1979, after the United States refused the extradition of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, a group of Muslim students seized the US Embassy and took 52 personnel and citizens hostage.^[171] Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate the release of the hostages, and a failed rescue attempt, helped with the falling popularity of Carter among US citizens. On Carter's final day in office, the last hostages were set free under the Algiers Accords. As a result of the Iranian takeover of the American Embassy, the US and Iran severed diplomatic relations in April 1980, and the two countries have had no formal diplomatic relationship since that date.^[172]

The

civilians killed.^[176][177]

Following the Iran–Iraq War, in 1989,

reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government attempted, unsuccessfully, to make the country freer and more democratic.^[178]

The

populist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power.^[179] By the 2009 Iranian presidential election, the Interior Ministry

announced incumbent President Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote.

Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran since 1989.

Ebrahim Raisi, the current President of Iran.

Mohammad Mokhber, the current Vice President of Iran.

Hassan Rouhani was elected president on 15 June 2013,^[180][181] improving relations with other countries.^[182]

On 3 January 2020, the revolutionary guard's general,

assassinated by the US in Iraq, which considerably heightened existing tensions between the two countries.^[183] The BBC reported that millions of mourners attended Soleimani's funeral ceremony on 6 January.^[184] His assassination lead to Operation Martyr Soleimani, the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans.^[185] Initially, the U.S. was not willing to concede the seriousness of the attack,^[186] but ultimately, the U.S. Department of Defense said that 110 service members had been diagnosed with traumatic brain injuries.^{[187][188][189][190][191][192]}

Ebrahim Raisi successfully ran for president a second time in 2021 with nearly 63% of the votes, succeeding Hassan Rouhani. Raisi is often seen as a frontrunner to succeed Khamenei as the Supreme Leader.^{[193][194][195][196][197]}

On January 15, 2024,

Iran launched ballistic missile and drone attacks against alleged Mossad headquarters in Iraqi Kurdistan,^{[198][199][200]} and ISIS bases in northern Syria,^{[201][202][203]} in response to the killing of Razi Mousavi and the 2024 Kerman bombings.^{[204][205][202]} As one of Iran's most extensive operations, the attack caused significant collateral damage in Erbil.^{[206][207][208]} A day after the attack, Iran carried out a similar series of strikes in Panjgur District of Pakistan, targeting the Sunni terror group Jaish ul-Adl.^{[209][210][204]}

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iran

See also: Borders of Iran and Agriculture in Iran

Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi).^[4] It is the fourth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia.^[213] It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi),^[214] and the Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi).

Iran is in a seismically active area.^[215] On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years.^[216] Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake.

Iran consists of the

Khuzestan. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is also the highest mountain in Asia west of the Hindu Kush.^[217]

The northern part of Iran is covered by the lush lowland

Lut Desert, as well as some salt lakes. The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface according to NASA, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005.^{[218][219][220][221]} The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman.^{[222][223][224]}

Islands

Main article: List of islands of Iran

Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf. Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake, 427 in Aras River, several in Anzali Lagoon, Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea, Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and several other inland islands. Iran also has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman, near the Pakistani border. A small number of Iranian islands can be visited by tourists, as most are in the possession of the military or wildlife protection, and entry to them is generally prohibited or requires a permit.^{[225][226][227]}

Iran took control of Bumusa, and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, all located in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their key strategic location.^{[228][229][230][231][232][233]} Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty over them,^{[234][235][236][237]} it has constantly been met with strong response from the Iranian government,^{[238][239][240]} based on their historical and cultural background.^[241] Iran has control over the islands.^[242][243]

Kish island, as a free trade zone, is touted as a consumer's paradise, with numerous malls, shopping centres, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels. Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016.^{[244][245][246]} Its salt cave, "Namakdan", is the largest salt cave in the world^[247][248] and one of the world's longest caves.^[249][250]

Climate

Main article:

Climate of Iran

Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests.^[251] On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain), temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).^[252][253] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the western part. Gary Lewis, the United Nations Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that "Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today".^[254]

To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts.^[255] Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F).^[252] The southern coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).^[252]

Wildlife

See also: Wildlife of Iran and List of national parks and protected areas of Iran

Persian leopard, native to the Iranian Plateau

The wildlife of Iran includes

grey wolves, jackals, panthers, and wild pigs.^[256][257] Eagles, falcons, partridges, pheasants, and storks are also native to Iran. One of the most famous animals of Iran is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus), which today survives only in Iran. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the now extinct Caspian tigers by the early 20th century.^[258]

There are around 200 protected areas in Iran to preserve the biodiversity and wildlife of the country, and as many as 16 of them are national parks.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Iran, Provinces of Iran, and Counties of Iran

See also: List of cities in Iran by province

Iran is divided into five regions with 31 provinces (ostān, استان),^[259] each governed by an appointed governor. The provinces are divided into counties, and subdivided into districts and sub-districts.

The country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.^[260] Iran's population is concentrated in its western half, especially in the north, north-west and west.^[261]

Tehran, with a population of around 8.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's capital and largest city. The country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.3 million (2016 census), and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million (2016 census) and is Iran's third most populous city. It is the capital of Isfahan province and was also the third capital of the Safavid Empire.

v t e Largest cities or towns in Iran 2016 census
	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
Tehran Mashhad	1	Tehran	Tehran	8,693,706	11	Rasht	Gilan	679,995	Isfahan Karaj
	2	Mashhad	Razavi Khorasan	3,001,184	12	Zahedan	Sistan and Baluchestan	587,730
	3	Isfahan	Isfahan	1,961,260	13	Hamadan	Hamadan	554,406
	4	Karaj	Alborz	1,592,492	14	Kerman	Kerman	537,718
	5	Shiraz	Fars	1,565,572	15	Yazd	Yazd	529,673
	6	Tabriz	East Azarbaijan	1,558,693	16	Ardabil	Ardabil	529,374
	7	Qom	Qom	1,201,158	17	Bandar Abbas	Hormozgan	526,648
	8	Ahvaz	Khuzestan	1,184,788	18	Arak	Markazi	520,944
	9	Kermanshah	Kermanshah	946,651	19	Eslamshahr	Tehran	448,129
	10	Urmia	West Azarbaijan	736,224	20	Zanjan	Zanjan	430,871

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Iran and Government of Iran

Supreme Leader

The Supreme Leader ("Rahbar"), or

Iranian parliament.^[270][271]

The Rahbar is the

armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace.^[263] The heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces, and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are directly appointed by the Rahbar.^[263]

The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Rahbar, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.^[272] To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him.^[273] The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani, appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar.^[274] Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.^{[275][276][277]} There have been instances when the current Rahbar publicly criticised members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal.

Guardian Council

Main article: Guardian Council

Presidential candidates and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council (all members of which are directly or indirectly appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running to ensure their allegiance.^[278] The Leader very rarely does the vetting himself directly but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council would not be needed. The Leader can also revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.^[279] The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the Iranian parliament.^[280][281]

President

Main article: President of Iran

After the Rahbar, the Constitution defines the president of Iran as the highest state authority.^[263][283] The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, but is required to gain the Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). The Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected president.^[284] The President can only be re-elected for one term.^[283]

The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, which has the final say.^[263] The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Rahbar.^[285] The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar.^{[286][287][267]}

The President appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, as well as the approval of the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time.

Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.^[291] Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.^[292]

Legislature

Main article: Islamic Consultative Assembly

See also: Specialized Commissions of the Parliament of Iran, Supreme Audit Court of Iran, and Majlis Research Center

The legislature of Iran, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-year terms.^[293] It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.^[294]

The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists, including six appointed by the Rahbar. Others are elected by the Parliament, from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the

Local city councils

are elected by public vote to four-year terms.

Law

Main article: Judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran

The Rahbar appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.^[273] There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offences, such as crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.^[273]

The Chief Justice is the head of the judicial system and is responsible for its administration and supervision. He is also the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran. The Chief Justice nominates some candidates for serving as minister of justice, and then the President select one of them. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms.^[298]

The

clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving laypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.^[273]

The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Iran

Since the time of the Iranian Revolution, Iran's foreign relations have often been portrayed as being based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in its region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries.^[299]

As of 2009^[update], the government of Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 99 members of the United Nations,^[300] but not with the United States, and not with Israel—a state which Iran has derecognised since the Revolution.^[301] Among Muslim nations, Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and Islamic ideologies.^[302]

Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC, ILO, BRI, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC,^[303] WHO, and the United Nations, and currently has observer status at the World Trade Organization.

sanctions against Iran. On 14 July 2015, Iran and the P5+1 agreed to the Joint Comprehensive Plan on Action (JCPOA), aiming to end economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium after demonstrating a peaceful nuclear research project that would meet the International Atomic Energy Agency standards.^[313]

Military

Main articles: Military history of Iran and Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces

hypersonic missile technology

.

The Iranian military is organized under a unified structure, the

Law Enforcement Force (Faraja), which serves an analogous function to a gendarme. While the IRIAF protects the country's sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC is mandated to ensure the integrity of the Islamic Republic, principally against foreign interference, coups, and internal riots.^[314] Since 1925, it is mandatory for all male citizen aged 18 to serve around 14 months in the IRIAF or the IRGC.^{[315][316][317][318]}

Iran has over 610,000 active troops and around 350,000 reservists, totalling nearly 1 million trained military personnel, one of the world's highest

police force

, has over 260,000 active personnel. Most statistical organizations do not include the Basij and Faraja in their ratings report.

Excluding the Basij and Faraja, Iran has been identified as a major military power, owing it to the size and capabilities of its armed forces. It possess the world's 14th strongest military.

Army Aviation fleet in the Middle East.^{[329][330][331]} Iran is among the top 15 countries in terms of military budget.^[332] In 2021, its military spending increased for the first time in four years, to $24.6 billion, 2.30% of the national GDP.^[333] Funding for the IRGC accounted for 34% of Iran's total military spending in 2021.^[334]

Since the Revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, Iran has developed a domestic military industry capable of producing indigenous

hypersonic missile technology.^[337][338] It is the world's 6th missile power.^[339] Iran designs and produces a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and is considered a global leader and superpower in drone warfare and technology.^{[340][341][342][343][344][345]} It is one of the world's five countries with cyberwarfare capabilities and is identified as "one of the most active players in the international cyber arena".^{[346][347][348]}

Following Russia's purchase of Iranian drones during the invasion of Ukraine,^{[349][350][351][352]} in November 2023, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) finalized arrangements to acquire Russian Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets, Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters, air defence and missile systems.^{[353][354][355][356]}

The Iranian Navy has had joint exercises with Russia and China.^{[357][358][359][360][361]}

Regional influence

Main articles: Iranian influence in Lebanon, Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war, and Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present)

Since the Iranian Revolution, Iran has grown its influence across and beyond the region.^{[366][367][368][369][370]} It has built military forces with a wide network of state and none-state actors, starting with Hezbollah in Lebanon in 1982.^{[371][372][373]} Since its establishment as a primary branch to the Iranian Army, the IRGC has been key to Iranian influence, through its Quds Force.^{[374][375][376][377][378]} The instability in Lebanon (from the 1980s),^[379] Iraq (from 2003) ^[380] and Yemen (from 2014) ^[381] have allowed Iran to build strong alliances and foothold beyond its borders. Iran has a prominent influence in the social services, education, economy and the politics of Lebanon,^[382][383] and analysts have argued that Lebanon provides Iran access to the Mediterranean Sea.^[384][385] Hezbollah's strategic successes against Israel, such as its symbolic victory during the 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War, elevated Iran's influence in Levant and strengthened its appeal across the Arab World.^{[386][387][388]}

Since the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the arrival of ISIS in the mid-2010s, Iran has financed and trained militia groups in Iraq, including the PMF.^{[389][390][391][392]} Since the Iran-Iraq war in 1980s and the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iran has shaped Iraq's politics.^{[393][394][395]} Following Iraq's struggle against the ISIS in 2014, companies linked to the IRGC such as Khatam al-Anbiya, started to build roads, power plants, hotels and businesses in Iraq, creating an economic corridor worth around $9 billion before COVID-19.^[396] This number is expected to grow to $20 billion in the coming years.^[397][398]

During Yemen's civil war, Iran provided military support to the Houthis,^{[402][403][404]} a Zaydi Shiite movement that has been fighting Yemen's Sunni government since 2004.^[405][406] They gained significant power in recent years.^{[407][408][409]} Iran also has considerable influence in Afghanistan and Pakistan through various militant groups such as Liwa Fatemiyoun and Liwa Zainebiyoun.^{[410][411][412][413]}

In Syria, Iran has supported President Bashar al-Assad,^{[386][414][415][416]} with the two countries being long-standing allies.^[417][386] Iran has provided significant military and economic support to Assad's government,^[414][418] and as a result, it has a considerable foothold in Syria.^[419][420] Iran have long supported the anti-Israel fronts in North Africa in countries like Algeria and Tunisia, embracing Hamas in part to help undermine the popularity of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in North Africa.^[421] Iran's support of Hamas emerged more clearly in later years.^{[422][423][424][425]} According to US intelligence officials, Iran does not have full control over these state and none state groups.^[426]

Human rights

Main articles:

punishable by death.^[432][433]

UN Special Rapporteur Javaid Rehman has reported discrimination against several ethnic minorities in Iran.^[434] A group of UN experts in 2022 urged Iran to stop "systematic persecution" of religious minorities, adding that members of the Baháʼí Faith were arrested, barred from universities, or had their homes demolished.^[435][436]

The 2006 election results were widely disputed,^[437][438] and resulted in widespread protests^[439][440] and the creation of the Iranian Green Movement.

The

2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November in Ahvaz, spreading across the country within hours, after the government announced increases in fuel prices of up to 300%.^[444] A week-long total Internet shutdown marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and in the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors in the history of Islamic Republic;^[445] tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, including Amnesty International.^[446]

Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, was a scheduled international civilian passenger flight from Tehran to Kyiv, operated by Ukraine International Airlines. On 8 January 2020, the Boeing 737-800 flying the route was shot down by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) shortly after takeoff, killing all 176 occupants on board and leading to nation-wide protests. An international investigation led to the government admitting to the shootdown, calling it a "human error".^[447][448]

Another Protests against the government began on 16 September 2022 after a woman named Mahsa Amini died in police custody following her arrest by the Guidance Patrol,^{[449][450][451]} known commonly as the "morality police".^[452]

Censorship

Main articles: Censorship in Iran, Internet censorship in Iran, and Mass media in Iran

Censorship in Iran is ranked among the most extreme worldwide.^{[453][454][455]} Iran also has strict regulations when it comes to internet censorship,^[456] with the government and the IRGC persistently blocking social media and other websites.^{[457][458][459]} In January 2021, Iranian authorities added Signal to the list of blocked social media platforms, which included Facebook, Telegram, Twitter and YouTube. They carried out arbitrary arrests for social media postings deemed "counter-revolutionary" or "un-Islamic".^[460]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iran

See also:

Iranian subsidy reform plan and Banking and insurance in Iran

Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.^[461] In 2022, Iran's nominal GDP was $352.2 billion, while its nominal GDP per capita was $4,110.^[462] The service sector contributes the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.^[463]

The

trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.^[464] The minimum wage in June 2013 was 487 million rials a month ($134).^[465] Unemployment has remained above 10% since 1997, and the unemployment rate for women is almost double that of the men.^[465]

In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% from taxes and fees.

cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a five-year period and increase productivity and social justice.^[470]

The administration continues to follow the

pharmaceutical industry.^[471] However, nationalised industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive. Currently, the government is trying to privatise these industries; problems include corruption in the public sector

and lack of competitiveness.

Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East.

figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, and watermelons.^[473]

Economic

sanctions against Iran have damaged the economy.^[474] In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 reached a deal on the nuclear programme that removed the main sanctions pertaining to Iran's nuclear programme by 2016.^[475] The United States under the Trump administration, withdrew from the deal on May 8, 2018, causing the return of sanctions and the resumption of uranium enrichment in Iran. Various countries, international organizations, and U.S. scholars have expressed regret or criticized the withdrawal, while U.S. conservatives

, Israel and Saudi Arabia have supported it.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Iran

Iran's tourism had constantly been growing before the COVID-19 pandemic, reaching nearly 9 million visitors in 2019, the world's third fastest-growing tourism destination before the pandemic.^[479][480] Iran's tourism experienced a growth of 48.5% in 2023, attracting over 5.2 million visitors, but 37% lower compared to the pre-COVID statistics in 2019.^[481] Over 400,000 visitors were motivated by trade, medical treatment and pilgrimage.^{[482][483][484]} In September and October 2023, Iran achieved a positive balance compared to the same period in 2019.^[481] Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Shiraz and Mashhad.^[485] Iran is fast emerging as a preferred destination for medical tourism.^[486][487]

1.8 million visitors from West Asia travelled to Iran in the first seven months of 2023, a 31% growth compared to the same period in 2022. This growth surpassed that of Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia.^[488]

Domestic tourism in Iran is one of the largest in the world, with the Iranian tourists spent $33.3 billion in 2021.^{[489][490][491][492]} Iran projects investment of over $32 billion in the country's tourism sector and targets 20 million tourists by 2026.^[493]

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Iran

Roughly one-third of Iran's total surface area is suited for farmland, but because of poor soil and lack of adequate water distribution, only 12% of the total land area is under cultivation. Less than one-third of the cultivated area is

farms are small, less than 25 acres (10 hectares), and are not economically viable, which has contributed to the wide-scale urbanization. In addition to water scarcity and areas of poor soil, seed is of low quality and farming techniques are antiquated.^[496][497]

Industry and services

Main article: Industry of Iran

Iran is globally ranked 16th in car manufacturing, ahead of the

petrochemical industries. As of 2011, some 66 Iranian industrial companies are carrying out projects in 27 countries.^[501] Iran exported over $20 billion worth of technical and engineering services over 2001–2011. The availability of local raw materials, rich mineral reserves, experienced manpower have all played crucial role in winning the bids.^[502] 45% of large industrial firms are located in Tehran, and almost half of these workers work for the government.^[503] The Iranian retail industry is largely in the hands of cooperatives, many of them government-sponsored, and of independent retailers in the bazaars. The bulk of food sales occur at street markets, where the Chief Statistics Bureau sets the prices.^[504] Iran's main exports are to Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and other Central Asian countries, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Syria, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, France, Canada, Venezuela, Japan, South Korea and Turkey.^[505][506] Iran's automotive industry is the second most active industry of the country, after its oil and gas industry.^[507] Iran Khodro is the largest car manufacturer in the Middle East, and ITMCO is biggest tractor manufacturer. Iran is the 12th largest automaker in the world

. Construction is one of the most important sectors in Iran accounting for 20–50% of the total private investment.

Iran is one of the most important mineral producers in the world, ranked among 15 major mineral-rich countries.[508] Iran's oil and gas industry is the most active industry of the country.^[507] Iran has the fourth largest reserves of oil and second largest reserves of gas in the world.

Iran manufactures 60–70% of its industrial equipment domestically.^{[509][510][511]} Iran has become self-sufficient in designing, building and operating dams and power plants. Iran is one of the six countries in the world that manufacture gas- and steam-powered turbines.^[512]

Iran's domestic

consumer electronic market was estimated at $7.3 billion in 2008 ($8.2 billion in 2010), with 47% market share for computer hardware, 28% Audio/Video and 25% mobile phone.^[513][514]

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Iran

In 2011 Iran had 173,000 kilometres (107,000 mi) of roads, of which 73% were paved.^[515] In 2008 there were nearly 100 passenger cars for every 1,000 inhabitants.^[516]

Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni on the Persian Gulf

.

Dozens of cities have airports that serve passenger and cargo planes. Iran Air, the national airline, was founded in 1962 and operated domestic and international flights. All large cities have mass transit systems using buses, and several private companies provide bus services between cities.

Transport in Iran is inexpensive because of

smuggling to neighbouring countries and air pollution. In 2008, more than one million people worked in the transportation sector, accounting for 9% of GDP.^[522]

Energy

Main articles:

Nuclear programme of Iran, and Foreign direct investment in Iran

natural gas field. It holds 8% of the world's total gas reserves.^[523]

Iran has the world's second largest proved

gas reserves, with 33.6 trillion cubic metres,^[524] and the third largest natural gas production. It also ranks fourth in oil reserves with an estimated 153,600,000,000 barrels.^[525][526] It is OPEC's second largest oil exporter. Despite this, Iran spent $4 billion on fuel imports as of 2005 due to a lack of domestic refining capacity.^[527] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day (640,000 m³/d) in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974.^[528]

In 2004, a large share of

Iran's natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009. Iran is the world's third country to have developed GTL technology.^[529]

Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government's goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear power generation capacity. Iran's first nuclear power plant went online in 2011. It is the second nuclear power plant in the Middle East.^[530][531]

Education, science, technology and telecommunications

Science and technology

Main article:

scientist, and theologian

.

Iran has made considerable advances in science and technology, despite international sanctions during the past 30 years. In recent years, the growth in Iran's scientific output is reported to be the fastest in the world. In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology.^[532] In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep at the Royan Research Center in Tehran.^[533] Stem cell research in Iran is among the top 10 in the world.^[534] Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.^{[535][536][537]} Iranian scientists outside Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh.^[538] Iranian cardiologist Tofigh Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart. Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. A substantial number of papers in string theory are published in Iran.^[539] In August 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, as well as the first Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.^[540] Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate, followed by China.^[541] According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in the world in terms of research output by 2018, if the current trend persists.^[542]

The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.^[543]

Education

Education in Iran is highly centralised. K–12 is supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Science and Technology. According to UNESCO, Iran's literacy rate among people aged 15 years and older was 85.54% as of 2016, with men (90.35%) being significantly more educated than women (80.79%).^[544] According to this report, Iranian government expenditure on education amounts to around 4% of the GDP.

The requirement to enter into higher education is to have a

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (as of January 2017^[update]), Iran's top five universities include Tehran University of Medical Sciences (478th worldwide), the University of Tehran (514th worldwide), Sharif University of Technology (605th worldwide), Amirkabir University of Technology (726th worldwide), and the Tarbiat Modares University (789th worldwide).^[547] Iran was ranked 62nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 67th in 2020.^[548][549]

Iranian Space Agency

The Iranian Space Agency (ISA) was established on 28 February 2004. Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009,^[550] and is a founding member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Iran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the Iranian Revolution, on 2 February 2009,^[551] through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.^[552] Simorgh's launch in 2016, is the successor of Safir.^[553]

On January 20, 2024, Iran launched the Soraya satellite into its highest orbit yet (750 km),^[554][555] a new space launch milestone for the country.^[556][557] It was launched by Qaem 100 rocket.^{[558][559][560]}

On January 28, 2024, Iran successfully launched three indigenous satellites, The Mahda, Kayan and Hatef,^[561] into orbit using the Simorgh carrier rocket.^[562][563] It was the first time in country's history that it simultaneously sent three satellites into space.^[564][565] The three satellites are designed for testing advanced satellite subsystems, space-based positioning technology, and narrowband communication.^[566]

On February 29, 2024, Iran launched its domestically developed imaging satellite, Pars 1, from Russia into orbit.^[567][568] This was done for the second time since August 2022, when Russia launched another Iranian remote-sensing, The Khayyam satellite, into orbit from Kazakhstan, reflecting deep scientific cooperation between the two countries.^[569][570]

The

Iran's telecommunications industry is almost entirely state-owned, dominated by the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI). Fixed-line penetration in 2004 was relatively well-developed by regional standards, at 22 lines per 100 people, compared with Egypt with 14. Iran had more than one mobile phone per inhabitant by 2012.^[572]

As of 2020, 70 million Iranians use high-speed mobile internet. Iran is among the first five countries which have had a growth rate of over 20 percent and the highest level of development in telecommunication.^[573] Iran has been awarded the UNESCO special certificate for providing telecommunication services to rural areas. By the end of 2009, Iran's telecom market was the fourth-largest market in the region at $9.2 billion.^[574]

Demographics

Population of Iranian provinces and counties in 2021.

Iran's population grew rapidly from about 19 million in 1956 to about 85 million by February 2023.^[575] However, Iran's fertility rate has dropped dramatically, from 6.5 children born per woman to about 1.7 two decades later,^{[576][577][578]} leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% as of 2018.^[579] Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilises around 105 million by 2050.^{[580][581][582]}

Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations, with almost one million,^[583] mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.^[584] According to estimates, about five million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the 1979 Revolution.^[585][586]

According to the

The majority of the population speaks Persian, the official language of the country.^[3] Others include speakers of several other Iranian languages within the greater Indo-European family and languages belonging to some other ethnicities living in Iran.

The

Azerbaijani, the most-spoken minority language in the country,^[589] and other Turkic languages and dialects are found in various regions, especially Azerbaijan.

Notable minority languages in Iran include

Ethnic group composition remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity.

The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (including Mazenderanis, Gilaks, and the Talysh), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Baloch, 1% Turkic tribal groups (including Qashqai and Turkmens), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups (including Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%.^{[595][4][596]}

Health

Healthcare is provided by the public-governmental system, the private sector, and

Zoroastrians, Jews,^[4] Mandaeans^[610] and Yarsanis. Iran was scored zero out of 4 for religious freedom by Freedom House.^[611]

There is a large population of adherents of Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion,^{[613][614][615]} estimated to be over half a million^[616] to one million followers.^[617] The Baháʼí Faith is not officially recognized and has been subject to official persecution.^[618] According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran, Baháʼís are the largest non-Muslim religious minority in Iran, with an estimated 350,000 adherents.^[619] Since the Revolution, the persecution of Baháʼís has increased.^{[618][620][621]}

Art

The art of Iran encompasses many disciplines, including

By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art came across a general renaissance.[635] During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian mediaeval art.^{[636][637][638][639]} The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art.^[640] Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the neighbouring Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was also influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.

Iran's contemporary art traces its origins to the time of Kamal-ol-molk,^[641] a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar dynasty who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by Kamal-ol-Molk in 1928,^[641] and was followed by the so-called "coffeehouse" style of painting.

Iran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II.^[641] The vibrant contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in September 1949 by painters Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.^[642] The new movements received official encouragement by the mid-1950s,^[641] which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian.^[643]

Architecture

The history of architecture in Iran goes back to the seventh millennium BC,

Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the

Iran's oldest

Persian is considered one of the four main bodies of world literature.^[656] The Persian language was used and developed further through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving extensive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others. Iran has a number of famous mediaeval poets, most notably Rumi, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Sa'adi, Omar Khayyam, and Nezami Ganjavi.^[657]

World Heritage Sites

Iran ranks 10th globally in terms of UNESCO-listed monuments, with 27.^[658] These include Persepolis, Naghsh-e Jahan Square, Chogha Zanbil, Pasargadae, Golestan Palace, Arg-e Bam, Behistun Inscription, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Susa, Takht-e Soleyman, Hyrcanian forests, the city of Yazd and more. Iran also has 24 Intangible Cultural Heritage, or "Human treasures", which ranks 5th worldwide.^[659][660]

Dance

Iran has known dance in the forms of music, play, drama or religious rituals since at least the 6th millennium BC. Artifacts with pictures of dancers were found in many archaeological prehistoric sites.^[661] Genres of dance in Iran vary depending on the area, culture, and language of the local people, and can range from sophisticated reconstructions of refined court dances to energetic folk dances.^[662] Each group, region, and historical epoch has specific dance styles associated with it. The earliest researched dance from historic Iran is a dance worshipping Mithra. Ancient Persian dance was significantly researched by Greek historian from Herodotus. Iran was occupied by foreign powers, causing a slow disappearance of heritage dance traditions. The Qajar dynasty had an important influence on Persian dance. In this period, a style of dance began to be called "classical Persian dance". Dancers performed artistic dances in the court of the king for entertainment purposes such as coronations, marriage celebrations, and Norouz celebrations. In the 20th century, the music came to be orchestrated and dance movement and costuming gained a modernistic orientation to the West. In 1928, ballet came to Iran and impacted dance performance.^{[citation needed]}

Philosophy

The

Storytelling has an significant presence in Iranian folklore and culture.^[672][673] In classical Iran, minstrels performed for their audiences at royal courts^[672] and in public theatres.^[672][674] A minstrel was referred to by the Parthians as gōsān, and by the Sasanians as huniyāgar.^[672][675] Since the Safavid Empire, storytellers and poetry readers appeared at coffeehouses.^[672][676] After the Iranian Revolution, it took until 1985 to found the MCHTH (Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts),^[677] a now heavily centralized organization, supervising all kinds of cultural activities. It held the first scientific meeting on anthropology and folklore in 1990.^[678]

Mythology

Iranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories of extraordinary beings reflecting on good and evil (Ahura Mazda and Ahriman), actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and creatures. The tenth-century Persian poet, Ferdowsi, is the author of the national epic known as the Šāhnāme ("Book of Kings"), which is for the most part based on Xwadāynāmag, a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes,^[681] as well as the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, the Vendidad and the Bundahishn.

Music

Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating to the third millennium BC.

The history of

Iran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded by Qolam-Hoseyn Minbashian in 1933. By the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society and established the School of National Music in 1949.^[686]

Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.^[687] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. Iranian rock emerged in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s.^{[688][689][690][691]}

Theatre

The oldest Iranian initiation of theatre can be traced to ancient epic ceremonial theatres such as Sug-e Siāvuš ("mourning of Siāvaš"), as well as dances and theatre narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon.

Iran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi ("grocer play", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (in which the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-šab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).^[692]

Before the Iranian Revolution, the Iranian national stage had become a famous performing scene for known international artists and troupes,

A third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City in southeastern Iran depicts what could be the world's oldest example of animation.^[695] The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual centre of the Achaemenid Empire.^[696]

The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe. Later in 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi) opened the first public cinema in Tehran.^[697] The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sounded one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932.

Iran's animation industry began by the 1950s and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in January 1965.^[698][699] With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's Downpour and Nasser Taghvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed soon. Attempts to organise a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the framework of the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. The endeavours also resulted in the formation of Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.^[700] After the Revolution of 1979, and following the

In 2020, Ashkan Rahgozar's "The Last Fiction" became the first representative of Iranian animated cinema in the competition section in both Best Animated Feature and Best Picture categories at the Academy Awards.^{[708][709][710][711][712][713]}

Observances

Iran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox and described as the Persian New Year.^[716] It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009.^{[717][718][719][720]} On the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of Čāršanbe Suri celebrates Ātar ("fire") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting fireworks.^[721][722]

Islamic annual events such as Ramezān, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e Āšurā are marked by the country's large Muslim population, Christian traditions such as Noel,^[735] Čelle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pāk^[736] are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Purim,^[737] Hanukā,^[738] and Eid e Fatir (Pesah)^[739][740] are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade^[741] and Mehrgān are observed by the Zoroastrians.

Public holidays

Iran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.^[742] Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is solar.^[742] Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar marks international events.

Legal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (

Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9), Ashura (Muharram 10), Arba'een (Safar 20), the death of Muhammad (Safar 28), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18).^[743]

Cuisine

Iran is most likely the birthplace of

Being a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,^[757] and mountain climbing.^[758][759] It is home to several ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak.^[760] The resort of Tochal, located in the Alborz mountain rage, is the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m or 12,238 ft at its highest station). Dizin is the largest Iranian ski resort, and its officially granted the title by FIS to administer official and international competitions.^[761]

Dizin is the biggest ski resort in the Middle East.

Azadi Stadium in Tehran is West Asia's largest football stadium.

Iran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics. In September 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games.^{[762][763][764]}

In 2016, Iran made global headlines for international female champions boycotting tournaments in Iran in chess (U.S. Woman Grandmaster Nazí Paikidze)^[770][771] and in shooting (Indian world champion Heena Sidhu),^[772] as they refused to enter a country where they would be forced to wear a hijab.

Museums

The National Museum of Iran in Tehran is the country's most important cultural institution.^[773] As the first and biggest museum in Iran, the institution includes the Museum of Ancient Iran and the Museum of the Islamic Era. The National Museum is the world's most important museum in terms of preservation, display and research of archaeological collections of Iran,^[774] and ranks as one of the few most prestigious museums globally in terms of volume, diversity and quality of its monuments.^[775]

There are many other popular museums across the country such as the Golestan Palace (UNESCO World Heritage Site), The Treasury of National Jewels, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Sa'dabad Complex, The Carpet Museum, Abgineh Museum, Pars Museum, Azerbaijan Museum, Hegmataneh Museum, Susa Museum and more. In 2019, around 25 million people visited the museums.^[776][777]

Media

According to the

Since the Iranian Revolution, Iran's largest media corporation is the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB).^[491] Despite the restrictions on non-domestic television, about 65% of the residents of Tehran and about 30 to 40% of residents outside the capital access worldwide television channels through satellite dishes, although observers state that the figures are likely to be higher.^[781][782]

According to Internet World Stats, as of 2017^[update], around 69.1% of the population are Internet users.^[783] Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.^[784] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009 due to the organization of anti-governmental protests on the website.^[785] However, as of 2017^[update], Facebook has around 40 million subscribers based in Iran (48.8% of the population) who use virtual private networks and proxy servers to access the website.^[783] About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.^[786][784]

Fashion and clothing

The exact date of the emergence of