Cosmology in medieval Islam

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Islamic cosmology
)

Islamic cosmology is the

Qur'an, Hadith, Sunnah, and current Islamic as well as other pre-Islamic sources. The Qur'an itself mentions seven heavens.[2][3][4]

Metaphysical principles

Duality

In Islamic thought the cosmos includes both the Unseen Universe (

Arabic: عالم الشهود, Alam-al-Shahood).[5] Nevertheless, both belong to the created universe. Islamic dualism does not constitute between spirit and matter, but between Creator (God) and creation.[6]
The latter including both the seen and unseen.

Sufi cosmology

Main article: Sufi cosmology

Sufi cosmology (

Arabic: الكوزمولوجية الصوفية) is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism. These may differ from place to place, order to order and time to time, but overall show the influence of several different cosmographies:[7][8]

Quranic interpretations

See also:
Islam and science

Contemporary and traditional interpretations have generally held in line with general biblical cosmology, with a flat Earth with skies stacked on top of each other, with some believing them to be domes and others flat circles.[16][17] Traditionalists rejected most concepts of Ptolemy's theories of a round Earth, and the debate continued for many centuries after the advent of Islam.[18]

There are several verses in the

Ash'ari theory of atomism.[22][23]

Cosmology in the medieval Islamic world

See also:
Islam and science

seven heavens
, "He it is who created for you all that is in the earth; then he turned towards the heavens, and he perfected them as seven heavens; and he has perfect knowledge of all things." One verse says that each heaven or sky has its own order, possibly meaning laws of nature. Another verse says after mentioning the seven heavens "and similar earths".[25][2]

In 850,

apogees of the Sun and the Moon, and the circumference of the Earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.[26][27]

Cosmography

Islamic historian Michael Cook states that the "basic structure" of the Islamic universe according to scholars interpretation of the verses of the Quran and Islamic traditions was of seven heavens above seven earths.[28]

  • "Allah is He Who Created seven firmaments and of the earth a similar number. Through the midst of them (all) descends His command: that ye may know that Allah has power over all things, and that Allah comprehends all things In (His) Knowledge." 65:12

The seven earths formed parallel layers with human beings inhabiting the top layer and Satan dwelling at the bottom. The seven heavens also formed parallel layers; the lowest level being the sky we see from earth and the highest being paradise (

Miʿrāj: Moses (Musa) on the sixth heaven,[29] Abraham (Ibrahim) on the seventh heaven,[30]
etc.

Main article:
ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt

ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt (

Qazwin year 600 (AH
(1203 AD).

Temporal finitism

See also: Early Islamic philosophy

In contrast to ancient

Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel).[additional citation(s) needed] They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:[31]

"An actual infinite cannot exist."
"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."
"∴ An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."

The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:[31]

"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."
"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."
"∴ The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."

Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first antinomy concerning time.[31]

Amount of time

The Quran states that the universe was created in six ayyam (days), in verse 50:38 among others.[32] According to verse 70:4, one day in Quran is equal to 50,000 years on Earth. However, this scale is identified about the Day of Judgement.[33] Therefore, Muslims interpret the description of a "six days" creation as six distinct periods or eons. The length of these periods is not precisely defined, nor are the specific developments that took place during each period.[34]

According to Michael Cook "early Muslim scholars" believed the amount of finite time creation had been assigned was about "six or seven thousand years" and that perhaps all but 500 years or so had already passed. He quotes a tradition of Muhammad saying "in reference to the prospective duration" of the community of the Muslim companions: `Your appointed time compared with that of those who were before you is as from the afternoon prayer (Asr prayer) to the setting of the sun'".[35] Early Muslim Ibn Ishaq estimated the prophet Noah lived 1200 years after Adam was expelled from paradise, the prophet Abraham 2342 years after Adam, Moses 2907 years, Jesus 4832 years and Muhammad 5432 years.[35]

The

Lord of the Resurrection (Qāʾim al-Qiyāma), when the world will come out of darkness and ignorance and “into the light of her Lord” (Quran 39:69). His era, unlike that of the enunciators of divine revelation (nāṭiqs) before him, is not one where God prescribes the people to work. Rather, his is an era of reward for those “who laboured in fulfilment of (the Prophets') command and with knowledge”.[36]

Galaxy observation

The Arab astronomer

Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars".[42]

In the 10th century, the Persian astronomer

Book of Fixed Stars
in 964.

Possible worlds

alternate timelines and world histories that God could have possibly created. His theory parallels that of Duns Scotus in the 14th century. While it is uncertain whether Al-Ghazali had any influence on Scotus, they both may have derived their theory from their readings of Avicenna's Metaphysics.[46]

Multiversal cosmology

oscillate back and forth in linear motion
along a diameter of the larger circle.

Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." In volume 4 of the Matalib, Al-Razi states:[22]

It is established by evidence that there exists beyond the world a void without a terminal limit (khala' la nihayata laha), and it is established as well by evidence that God Most High has power over all contingent beings (al-mumkinat). Therefore He the Most High has the power (qadir) to create a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has of the throne (al-arsh), the chair (al-kursiyy), the heavens (al-samawat) and the Earth (al-ard), and the Sun (al-shams) and the Moon (al-qamar). The arguments of the philosophers (dala'il al-falasifah) for establishing that the world is one are weak, flimsy arguments founded upon feeble premises.

Al-Razi rejected the

Islamic theology, which entails the existence of vacant space in which the atoms move, combine and separate. He discussed in greater detail the void, the empty space between stars and constellations in the Universe, in volume 5 of the Matalib.[22] He argued that there exists an infinite outer space beyond the known world,[47] and that God has the power to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes.[48]

Refutations of astrology

See also:
Islamic astrology

The study of astrology was refuted by several Muslim writers at the time, including

Islamic scholars) reasons.[49]

empirical arguments in astronomy in order to refute the practice of astrology and divination.[42] He recognized that the stars are much larger than the planets, and thus argued:[42]

"And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?"

Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and thus argued that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences."[42]

Early heliocentric models

A work of Al-Birjandi's, Sharh al-Tadhkirah, a manuscript copy, beginning of 17th Century

The

Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865–925).[50]

In the late ninth century,

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and al-Sijzi.[51]

In the early eleventh century, al-Biruni had met several Indian scholars who believed in a rotating Earth. In his Indica, he discusses the theories on the Earth's rotation supported by Brahmagupta and other Indian astronomers, while in his Canon Masudicus, al-Biruni writes that Aryabhata's followers assigned the first movement from east to west to the Earth and a second movement from west to east to the fixed stars. Al-Biruni also wrote that al-Sijzi also believed the Earth was moving and invented an astrolabe called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea:[52]

"I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [...] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it."

In his Indica, al-Biruni briefly refers to his work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the Key of Astronomy, which is now lost:[52]

"The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called Miftah 'ilm al-hai'ah (Key of Astronomy), in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter."

Early Hay'a program

The Timbuktu Manuscripts showing both mathematics and astronomy.

During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by

Ptolemaic system of astronomy.[53]

Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably

Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems.[54] Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the Maragha school of astronomy, developed non-Ptolemaic planetary models within a geocentric context that were later adapted by the Copernican model in a heliocentric
context.

Between 1025 and 1028,

laws of physics."[58]

In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in The Model of the Motions. His reform was not concerned with

eccentrics,[61] separate natural philosophy from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,[62] and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.[63] Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.[64]

In 1030,

Varahamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Latinized as Indica). Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the earth rotates on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.[65] Abu Said al-Sijzi, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject.[66] Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models,[67] he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.[68] He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:[69][70][71]

"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution."

Andalusian Revolt

concentric
model of the universe.

In the 11th–12th centuries, astronomers in

revolt against Ptolemaic astronomy, otherwise known as the "Andalusian Revolt".[73]

In the 12th century,

concentric model of the universe. He wrote the following criticism on the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:[74]

"To assert the existence of an eccentric sphere or an epicyclic sphere is contrary to nature. [...] The astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists."

Averroes' contemporary,

Ibn Bajjah
(Avempace):

"I have heard that Abu Bakr [Ibn Bajja] discovered a system in which no epicycles occur, but eccentric spheres are not excluded by him. I have not heard it from his pupils; and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system, he has not gained much by it, for eccentricity is likewise contrary to the principles laid down by Aristotle.... I have explained to you that these difficulties do not concern the astronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the stars and planets is uniform and circular, and in agreement with observation."[75]

Ibn Bajjah also proposed the

uniform circular motion
.

Maragha Revolution

Main article: Maragheh observatory

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the

Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī (d. 1277), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), Ali Qushji (c. 1474), al-Birjandi (d. 1525) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).[78]

Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "

Tusi-couple showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying circular motions only.[79]

Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them,

mathematization of astronomy and of nature in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri.[81][82][83]

Tusi-couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant
.

Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the

philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[77] and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the heliocentric Copernical model.[86]

Tusi-couple as an alternative to the physically problematic equant introduced by Ptolemy.[88] Tusi's student Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), in his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, discussed the possibility of heliocentrism. Al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī, who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his Hikmat al-'Ain, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.[66]

Medieval manuscript by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi depicting an epicyclic planetary model.

empirical observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic solar model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the Ptolemaic lunar model. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical observations than any previous model,[77] and was also the first that permitted empirical testing.[89] His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[77] His rectified model was later adapted into a heliocentric model by Copernicus,[88] which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun.[68]

An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the

Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), Ali Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali al-Birjandi (d. 1525). Al-Tusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of comets relevant to the Earth as evidence, which Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting Aristotelian natural philosophy altogether. Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation (see Astronomical physics and Earth's motion section below).[84]

Experimental astrophysics and celestial mechanics

In the 9th century, the eldest

attraction between heavenly bodies,[91] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation.[92]

In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon) some time before 1021. This was the first attempt successful at combining mathematical astronomy with physics and the earliest attempt at applying the experimental method to astronomy and astrophysics. He disproved the universally held opinion that the Moon reflects sunlight like a mirror and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the sun's light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the Moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious experimental device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."[93]

Ibn al-Haytham, in his

Witelo and had a significant influence on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy.[94]

In the 12th century,

divine revelation or prophetic traditions." He concludes that "astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."[22]

The theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the

al-Jurjani (1339–1413), who argued that even if the celestial spheres "do not have an external reality, yet they are things that are correctly imagined and correspond to what [exists] in actuality".[85]

Astronomical physics and Earth's motion

Ali Qushji provided empirical evidence for the Earth's motion and developed an astronomical physics independent from Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy.

The work of

empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true.[84][85][96] His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent astronomical physics.[97]

Despite the similarity in their discussions regarding the Earth's motion, there is uncertainty over whether Qushji had any influence on Copernicus. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of al-Tusi as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in De revolutionibus (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s Tadhkira (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth's immobility." This can be considered as evidence that not only was Copernicus influenced by the mathematical models of Islamic astronomers, but may have also been influenced by the astronomical physics they began developing and their views on the Earth's motion.[98]

In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by al-Birjandi (d. 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, develops a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia",[99] which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's arguments):

"The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (sath) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (tajriba). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (hissi) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."[100]

See also

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  95. ^ (Huff 2003, p. 175)
  96. ISBN 0-521-00063-7
    .
  97. ^ (Ragep 2004, p. 139)
  98. ^ (Ragep 2004, pp. 137–139)
  99. ^ (Ragep 2001b, pp. 63–64)
  100. ^ (Ragep 2001a, pp. 152–153)

References

External links

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