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Jihad (
The word jihad appears frequently in the
Jihad is classified into inner ("greater") jihad, which involves a struggle against one's own base impulses, and external ("lesser") jihad, which is further subdivided into jihad of the pen/tongue (debate or persuasion) and jihad of the sword.[5][19][10] Most Western writers consider external jihad to have primacy over inner jihad in the Islamic tradition, while much of contemporary Muslim opinion favors the opposite view.[19] The analysis of a large survey from 2002 reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world.[20]
The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims, as when Muhammad was at Mecca, when the community had two choices: emigration (hijra) or jihad.
Etymology and literary origins
The term jihad is derived from the
The Hans Wehr
In Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular. It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word "
Quran
Jihad is mentioned in four places in the
Hadith
There are also many
Among reported sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad involving jihad are
The best Jihad is the word of Justice in front of the oppressive sultan.
and
The Messenger of Allah was asked about the best jihad. He said: "The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled."
— cited byIbn Nuhaas and narrated by Ibn Habbaan[45]
Ibn Nuhaas also cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is "The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood" (Ahmed 4/144).[46] Muhammad also said, “I cannot find anything” as meritorious as jihad; he further likened jihad to “praying ceaselessly and fasting continuously”.[47][48] Muhammad said that “if it were not a hardship for the Muslims, I would never idle behind from a raiding party going out to fight in the path of Allah.... I [would] love to raid in the path of Allah and be killed, to raid again and be killed, and to raid again and be killed”.[49] Muhammad also said that "Lining up for battle in the path of Allah [jihad] is worthier than 60 years of worship".[50] Muhammad claimed that any muslim who refused to fight in Jihad “will be tortured like no other sinful human” in hell with confirmation from Quran 8:15-16.[51][52] Another hadith has Muhammad saying that “the sword wipes away all sins” and “being killed in the path of Allah washes away impurity”[53][54]
According to another hadith,[55] supporting one's parents is also an example of jihad.[56] It has also been reported that Muhammad considered performing hajj well to be the best jihad for Muslim women.[57][58]
The hadith emphasize jihad as one of the means to
Greater and lesser jihad
Tradition distinguishes the "greater jihad" (inner struggle against sinful behavior) from the "lesser jihad" (military sense).[5] Early Islamic thought considered non-violent interpretations of jihad, especially for those Muslims who could not partake in warfare in distant lands.[citation needed] Most classical writings use the term "jihad" in the military sense.[61][62] The tradition differentiating between the "greater and lesser jihad" is not included in any of the authoritative compilations of Hadith. In consequence, some Islamists dismiss it as not authentic.[63]
The most commonly cited hadith for "greater jihad" is:[citation needed]
A number of fighters came to Muhammad and he said "You have come from the 'lesser jihad' to the 'greater jihad'." The fighters asked "what is the greater jihad?" Muhammad replied, "It is the struggle against one's passions."[64]
This was also cited in The History of Baghdad by
The concept has had "enormous influence" in Islamic mysticism (Sufism).[68][69]
Ibn Hazm lists four kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God):
- Jihad of the heart (jihad bil qalb/nafs) is concerned with combatting the devil and in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil. This type of Jihad was regarded[citation needed] as the greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar).
- Jihad by the tongue (jihad bil lisan) (also Jihad by the word, jihad al-qalam) is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue.
- Jihad by the hand (jihad bil yad) refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action.
- Jihad by the sword (jihad bis saif) refers to qital fi sabilillah (armed fighting in the way of God, or Salafi Muslims and offshoots of the Muslim Brotherhood.[70]
A related hadith tradition that has "found its way into popular Muslim literature",[71] and which has been said to "embody the Muslim mindset" of the Islamic Golden Age (the period from the mid-8th century to mid-13th century following the relocation of the Abbasid capital from Damascus to Baghdad),[72] is:
"The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr."
The belief in the veracity of this hadith was a contributing factor in the efforts by successive caliphs to subsidize translations of "
According to classical Islamic scholars like
"Jihad against the lower self and whims is the foundation of jihad against the unbelievers and hypocrites, for a Muslim cannot wage jihad against them unless he has waged jihad against himself and his desires first, before he goes out against them."[77]
Engaging in the greater jihad need not preclude engaging in the lesser jihad.
At least one important contemporary Twelver Shia figure, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the Iranian Revolution and the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, wrote a treatise on the "Greater Jihad" (i.e., internal/personal struggle against sin).[79]
Robert W. Schaefer discusses jihad and gazavat in the context of the Caucasus: "Gazavat was the jihad of its day. Gazavat meant putting yourself on the right path (what Muslims refer to as the lesser jihad) as well as expelling the invader (what is referred to as greater jihad)."[80]
Defensive and offensive jihad
The Historian and Jurist Ibn Khaldun explains how Islamic concept of Jihad was unqiue among all other religions:[81]
In the Muslim community, the holy war [Jihad] is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the [Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save only for purposes of defense. Islam is under obligation to gain power over other nations.
Classical scholars discussed justifications for jihad, including waging it defensively vs offensively. However, classical jurists paid more attention to conduct of war
Two justifications for jihad were given: defensive war against external aggression, or an offensive or preemptive attack against an enemy state.[85] According to the majority of jurists, the casus belli (justifications for war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims,[86][87] and fitna—persecution of Muslims because of their religious belief.[86] They hold that unbelief in itself is not a justification for war. These jurists therefore maintain that only combatants are to be fought; noncombatants such as women, children, clergy, the aged, the insane, farmers, serfs, the blind, and so on are not to be killed in war.[86] Thus, the Hanafī Ibn Najīm states: "the reason for jihād in our [the Hanafīs] view is kawnuhum harbā ‛alaynā [literally, their being at war against us]."[86][88] The Hanafī jurists al-Shaybānī state that "although kufr [unbelief in God] is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to the dār al-jazā’, (the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter),"[86] and al-Sarakhsī says something similar.[89] Offensive jihad involved forays into enemy territory either for conquest, and thus enlarging the Muslim political order, or to dissuade the enemy from attacking Muslim lands.[90]
Shia and Sunni theories of jihad are similar,[36] except that Shias consider offensive jihad to be valid only under the leadership of the Mahdi, who is currently believed to be in occultation but will return at some point in the future.[91][92] However, defensive jihad is permissible in Shia Islam before the Mahdi's return.[91] In fact, Shia scholars emphasized it was a religious duty for Shia to defend all Muslims (including Sunni Muslims) from outside invaders.[93]
Rules of warfare
They might be our enemies but they are human beings. They consist of civil population comprising of women and children; how can one kill, loot and plunder them?
—Ali ibn Abi Talib, Najh Al-Balagha[94]
Rules prohibit attacking or molesting non-combatants, which include women, children under the age of puberty, elderly men, people with disabilities and those who are sick.[95][96] Diplomats, merchants and peasants are similarly immune from being attacked.[95][97] Monks are presumed to be non-combatants and thus have immunity too; similarly places of worship should not be attacked.[95] Even if the enemy disregarded the immunity of noncombatants, Muslims could not respond in kind.[78] However, these categories lose their immunity if they participate in fighting, planning or supplying the enemy.[95] Some jurists argued that immunity was more related to noncombatant status than being in a certain demographic class. For example, Muhaqqiq al-Hilli opined that only old men are only immune from being killed if they neither fight, nor take a role in military decision making.[clarification needed][98]
Up until the
There are two conflicting rulings on destruction of enemy property. In one military battle, Prophet Muhammad ordered the destruction of an enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed. By contrast, Abu Bakr prohibited destruction of trees, buildings and livestock.[102] Most jurists did not allow unnecessary destruction of enemy property,[78] but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as destroying buildings in which the enemy is taking shelter.[102] Some jurists also allowed destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war.[102] Many jurists cautioned against "unnecessary devastation", not just out of humanitarian concerns, but practical ones: it is more useful to capture an enemy's property than to destroy it.[103] Islamic scholars prohibited killing animals, unless due to military necessity (such as killing horses in battle). This is because, unlike other enemy property, animals are capable of feeling pain.[102]
History of usage and practice
In pre-Islamic Arabia, Bedouins conducted raids against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils. According to some scholars (such as James Turner Johnson), while Islamic leaders "instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief" in jihad "holy war" and ghaza (raids), the "fundamental structure" of this bedouin warfare "remained, ... raiding to collect booty".[104] According to Jonathan Berkey, the Quran's statements in support of jihad may have originally been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but these same statements could be redirected once new enemies appeared.[105] According to another scholar (Majid Khadduri), it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam not only to expand but to avoid self-destruction.[106]
Classical
The primary aim of jihad as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state.[107][108] In theory, jihad was to continue until "all mankind either embraced Islam or submitted to the authority of the Muslim state." There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace.[109] One who died "on the path of God" was a martyr (shahid), whose sins were remitted and who was secured "immediate entry to paradise".[92]
According with
However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic because it is within God's exclusive province to judge who is worthy of that designation.[121]
Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called Book of Jihad, with
The first documentation of the law of jihad was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and
Both
"As for the transgressor who does not fight, there are no texts in which Allah commands him to be fought. Rather, the unbelievers are only fought on the condition that they wage war, as is practiced by the majority of scholars and is evident in the Book and Sunnah."[77][128]
As important as jihad was, it has not been considered one of the "pillars of Islam". According to one scholar (Majid Khadduri, this is because the five pillars are individual obligations, but jihad is a "collective obligation" of the whole Muslim community meant to be carried out by the Islamic state.[129] This was the belief of "all jurists, with almost no exception", but did not apply to defense of the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which case jihad was and "individual obligation" of all believers, including women and children.[129]
Scholars had previously assumed it was the responsibility of a centralized government to organize jihad. But this changed as the authority of the
Classical Shia doctrine maintained defensive jihad was always permissible, but offensive jihad required the presence of the Imam. An exception to this, during medieval times, was when the first Fatimid caliph
After the Mongol invasions, Shia scholar Muhaqqiq al-Hilli made defensive war not just permissible but praiseworthy, even obligatory. If a Muslim could not take part in the defense then he should, at least, send material support. This remained the case even if the Muslims were ruled by an unjust ruler.[132]
Early Muslim conquests
In the early era that inspired classical Islam (
Post-Classical usage
According to some authors,[
Rudolph Peters also wrote that with the stagnation of Islamic expansionism, the concept of jihad became internalized as a moral or spiritual struggle.
Ibn Taymiyyah's hallmark themes included the permissibility of overthrowing a ruler who is classified as an unbeliever due to a failure to adhere to Islamic law, the absolute division of the world into dar al-kufr and dar al-Islam, the labeling of anyone not adhering to one's particular interpretation of Islam as an unbeliever, and the call for blanket warfare against Non-Muslims, particularly Jews and Christians.[144]
Ibn Taymiyyah recognized "the possibility of a jihad against `heretical` and `deviant` Muslims within dar al-Islam. He identified as heretical and deviant Muslims anyone who propagated innovations (bida') contrary to the Quran and Sunna ... legitimated jihad against anyone who refused to abide by Islamic law or revolted against the true Muslim authorities." He used a very "broad definition" of what constituted aggression or rebellion against Muslims, which would make jihad "not only permissible but necessary."[145] Ibn Taymiyyah also paid careful and lengthy attention to the questions of martyrdom and the benefits of jihad: 'It is in jihad that one can live and die in ultimate happiness, both in this world and in the Hereafter. Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness.`[146]
Bernard Lewis states that while most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 CE) understood jihad to be a military endeavor,
By the 1500s, it had become accepted that the permanent state of relations between dar al-Islam and dar al-harb was that of peace.[citation needed]
In the 18th century, the Durrani Empire under the reigns of Ahmad Shah Durrani and his son and successor, Timur Shah Durrani had issued multiple jihads against Sikh Misls in the Punjab region, often to consolidate territory and continue Afghan rule in the region, efforts under Ahmad Shah failed, while Timur Shah had succeeded.[151]
Colonialism and modernism
When Europeans began the colonization of the Muslim world, jihad was one of the first responses by local Muslims.
Rashid Rida and Muhammad Abduh argued that peaceful coexistence should be the normal state between Muslim and non-Muslim states, citing verses in the Qur'an that allowed war only in self-defense.[2] However, this view still left open jihad against colonialism, which was seen as an attack on Muslims.[2]
A concept that played a role in anti-colonial jihad (or lack thereof) was the belief in Mahdi.[citation needed] According to Islamic eschatology, a messianic figure named Mahdi will appear and restore justice on earth. Such a belief sometimes discouraged Muslims from conducting jihad against the colonial powers, instead inducing them to passively wait for the messiah to come. Such messages were circulated in Algeria to undermine Emir Abdelkader's jihad against the French.[citation needed] On the other hand, this belief could be a powerful mobilizing force in cases when someone would proclaim himself Mahdi. Such mahdist rebellions happened in India (1810), Egypt (1865) and Sudan (1881).[citation needed]
With the
When the Ottoman caliph
Prior to the Iranian revolution in 1922, the Shiite cleric
During the
Post-colonialism
Islamism has played an increasing role in the Muslim world in the 20th century, especially following the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s.[161] One of the first Islamist groups, the Muslim Brotherhood, emphasized physical struggle and martyrdom in its creed: "God is our objective; the Quran is our constitution; the Prophet is our leader; struggle (jihad) is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations."[162][163] Hassan al-Banna emphasized jihad of the sword, and called on Egyptians to prepare for jihad against the British Empire,[164] (making him the first influential scholar since the 1857 India uprising to call for jihad of the sword).[165] The group called for jihad against Israel in the 1940s,[166] and its Palestinian branch, Hamas, called for jihad against Israel when the First Intifada started.[167][168][169]
Modern Muslim thought had been focused on when to go to war (
According to Rudolph F. Peters and Natana J. DeLong-Bas, the new "fundamentalist" movement brought a reinterpretation of Islam and their own writings on jihad. These writings tended to be less interested and involved with legal arguments, what the different of schools of Islamic law had to say, or in solutions for all potential situations. "They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules." They also tended to ignore the distinction between Greater and Lesser jihad because it distracted Muslims "from the development of the combative spirit they believe is required to rid the Islamic world of Western influences".[171][172]
Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists were often influenced by medieval Islamic jurist
The highly influential Muslim Brotherhood leader,
Later ideologue,
During the
Terrorism
Many Muslims, including scholars like
Abdullah Azzam
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In the 1980s
Azzam claimed that "anyone who looks into the state of Muslims today will find that their great misfortune is their abandonment of Jihad", and he also warned that "without Jihad, shirk (joining partners with Allah) will spread and become dominant".[187] Jihad was so important that to "repel" the unbelievers was "the most important obligation after Iman [faith]".[187]
Azzam also argued for a broader interpretation of who it was permissible to kill in jihad, an interpretation that some think may have influenced some of his students, including Osama bin Laden.[188]
A charismatic speaker, Azzam traveled to dozens of cities in Europe and North America to encourage support for jihad in Afghanistan. He inspired young Muslims with stories of miraculous deeds during jihad—mujahideen who defeated vast columns of Soviet troops virtually single-handed, who had been run over by tanks but survived, who were shot but unscathed by bullets. Angels were witnessed riding into battle on horseback, and falling bombs were intercepted by birds, which raced ahead of the jets to form a protective canopy over the warriors.[189] In Afghanistan he set up a "services office" for foreign fighters and with support from his former student Osama bin Laden and Saudi charities, foreign mujahideed or would-be mujahideen were provided for. Between 1982 and 1992 an estimated 35,000 individual Muslim volunteers went to Afghanistan to fight the Soviets and their Afghan regime. Thousands more attended frontier schools teeming with former and future fighters.[190] Saudi Arabia and the other conservative Gulf monarchies also provided considerable financial support to the jihad—$600 million a year by 1982.[191] CIA also funded Azzam's Maktab al-Khidamat[192] and others via Operation Cyclone.
Azzam saw Afghanistan as the beginning of jihad to repel unbelievers from many countries—the
Having tasted victory in Afghanistan, many of the thousands of fighters returned to their home country such as Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir or to places like Bosnia to continue jihad. Not all the former fighters agreed with Azzam's chioice of targets (Azzam was assassinated in November 1989) but former Afghan fighters led or participated in serious insurgencies in Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir, Somalia in the 1990s and later creating a "transnational jihadist stream."[194]
In February 1998, Osama bin Laden put a "Declaration of the World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders" in the Al-Quds al-Arabi newspaper.[195] On 11 September 2001, four passenger planes were hijacked in the United States and crashed, destroying the World Trade Center and damaging the Pentagon.
Shia
In
Because of their history of being oppressed, Shias also associated jihad with certain passionate features, notably in the remembrance of Ashura. Mahmoud M. Ayoub says:
In Islamic tradition jihad or the struggle in the way of God, whether as armed struggle, or any form of opposition of the wrong, is generally regarded as one of the essential requirements of a person's faith as a Muslim. Shi'î tradition carried this requirement a step further, making jihad one of the pillars or foundations (arkan) of religion. If, therefore, Husayn's struggle against the Umayyad regime must be regarded as an act of jihad, then, In the mind of devotees, the participation of the community in his suffering and its ascent to the truth of his message must also be regarded as an extension of the holy struggle of the Imam himself. The hadith from which we took the title of this chapter states this point very clearly. Ja'far al-Sadiq is said to have declared to al-Mufaddal, one of his closest disciples, 'The sigh of the sorrowful for the wrong done us is an act of praise (tasbih) [of God], his sorrow for us is an act of worship, and his keeping of our secret is a struggle (jihad) in the way of God'; the Imâm then added, 'This hadith should be inscribed in letters of gold'.[197]
and
Hence, the concept of jihad (holy struggle) gained a deeper and more personal meaning. Whether through weeping, the composition and recitation of poetry, showing compassion and doing good to the poor or carrying arms, the Shi'i Muslim saw himself helping the Imam in his struggle against the wrong (zulm) and gaining for himself the same merit (thawab) of those who actually fought and died for him. The
ta'ziyah, in its broader sense the sharing of the entire life of the suffering family of Muhammad, has become for the Shi'i community the true meaning of compassion.[198]
In the
Evolution of the term in Islamic jurisprudence
Some observers
The first or the "classical" doctrine of jihad which was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized the jihad of the sword (jihad bil-saif) rather than the "jihad of the heart",
The book has been described as rationalising "the murder of non-combatants" by The Guardian's Mark Towsend, citing Salah al-Ansari of Quilliam, who notes: "There is a startling lack of study and concern regarding this abhorrent and dangerous text [The Jurisprudence of Blood] in almost all Western and Arab scholarship".[208] Charlie Winter of The Atlantic describes it as a "theological playbook used to justify the group's abhorrent acts".[207] He states:
Ranging from ruminations on the merits of beheading, torturing, or burning prisoners to thoughts on assassination, siege warfare, and the use of biological weapons, Muhajir's intellectual legacy is a crucial component of the
literary corpus of ISIS—and, indeed, whatever comes after it—a way to render practically anything permissible, provided, that is, it can be spun as beneficial to the jihad. [...] According to Muhajir, committing suicide to kill people is not only a theologically sound act, but a commendable one, too, something to be cherished and celebrated regardless of its outcome. [...] neither Zarqawi nor his inheritors have looked back, liberally using Muhajir's work to normalize the use of suicide tactics in the time since, such that they have become the single most important military and terrorist method—defensive or offensive—used by ISIS today. The way that Muhajir theorized it was simple—he offered up a theological fix that allows any who desire it to sidestep the Koranic injunctions against suicide.[207]
Psychologist Chris E. Stout also discusses the al Muhajir-inspired text in his book, Terrorism, Political Violence, and Extremism. He assesses that jihadists regard their actions as being "for the greater good"; that they are in a "weakened in the earth" situation that renders terrorism a valid means of solution.[209]
Current usage
The term 'jihad' has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. According to
Muslim public opinion
A poll by
Other spiritual, social, economic struggles
Shia Muslim scholar
In modern times, Pakistani scholar and professor Fazlur Rahman Malik has used the term to describe the struggle to establish a "just moral-social order",[215] while President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia has used it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country.[216]
According to the BBC, a third meaning of jihad is the struggle to build a good society.
Scholar Natana J. Delong-Bas lists a number of types of "jihad" that have been proposed by Muslims
- educational jihad (jihad al-tarbiyyah);
- missionary jihad or calling the people to Islam (jihad al-da'wah)[219]
Other "types" mentioned include
- "Intellectual" Jihad (very similar to missionary jihad).[220]
- "Economic" Jihad (good doing involving money such as spending within one's means, helping the "poor and the downtrodden")Ministry of Jihad for Agriculture.[221]
- Jihad Al-Nikah, or sexual jihad, "refers to women joining the jihad by offering sex to fighters to boost their morale".[222] The term originated from a fatwa believed to have been fabricated by the Syrian government to discredit its opponents, and the prevalence of this phenomenon has been disputed.[223][224]
- Usage by some non-Muslims
- The United States Department of Justice has used its own ad hoc definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:
- "As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, governments deemed to be enemies of the fundamentalist version of Islam."[225]
- "As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking."José Padilla.
- "Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle," according to Karen Armstrong.[227]
- "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle—two ingredients common to many ideological movements," according to Maxime Rodinson.[228]
- Academic
Views of other groups
Ahmadiyya
In Ahmadiyya Islam, jihad is primarily one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution.[230]
Quranist
Quranists do not believe that the word jihad means holy war. They believe it means to struggle, or to strive. They believe it can incorporate both military and non-military aspects. When it refers to the military aspect, it is understood primarily as defensive warfare.[231][232]
See also
- Ijtihad
- Islam and war
- Islamic military jurisprudence
- Jihadism and hip-hop
- Jihad Cool
- Religious war
- Milkhemet Mitzvah
References
Citations
- ^ a b c John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Jihad". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
- ^ ISBN 9780199739356. Archivedfrom the original on 23 January 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-1317814047.
jihad Literally 'struggle' which has many meanings, though most frequently associated with war.
- ^ from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
- ^ Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone, ed. (2013). "Jihad". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Literally meaning "struggle", jihad may be associated with almost any activity by which Muslims attempt to bring personal and social life into a pattern of conformity with the guidance of God.
- ^ ISSN 1573-0255.
- ^ a b c Wael B. Hallaq (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). pp. 334–38.
- ISBN 9783110824858. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2017 – via De Gruyter.
- ^ a b Rudolph Peters (2005). "Jihad". In Lindsay Jones (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference. p. 4917.
- LCCN 2015010201.
- ^ S2CID 152941120.
- ^ a b Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 56: Seventeen derivatives of jihād occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with the following five meanings: striving because of religious belief (21), war (12), non-Muslim parents exerting pressure, that is, jihād, to make their children abandon Islam (2), solemn oaths (5), and physical strength (1).
- ISBN 978-0313360251. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
- ISBN 978-0415966900., Jihad, p. 419.
- ^ Esposito 1988, p. 54.
- ^ Bernard Lewis (27 September 2001). "Jihad vs. Crusade". Opinionjournal.com. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
- ISSN 1478-1913.
In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.
- ^ a b Bonner 2006, p. 13.
- ^ a b c d Burkholder, Richard (3 December 2002). "Jihad – 'Holy War', or Internal Spiritual Struggle?". gallup.com. Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
- ^ Esposito 1988, p. 30.
- ^ a b "Part 2: Islamic Practices". al-Islam.org. Archived from the original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-1461637394.
- ^ cf., e.g., "Libya's Gaddafi urges 'holy war' against Switzerland". BBC News. 26 February 2010. Archived from the original on 4 March 2010. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- ^ Rudolph F. Peters, Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam (Brill, 1977), p. 3
- OCLC 61176687.
- ISBN 978-0061189036.
- ^ a b c d e Özel, Ahmed (1993). Jihad (in Turkish). Vol. 7. Istanbul: Turkish Diyanet Foundation. pp. 527–531.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ a b c Jihād. encyclopedia.com. 21 May 2013.
- ^ Cowah, J. Milton (ed.). Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (3rd ed.). Beirut: Librairie Du Liban. p. 142.
- ISBN 90-04-07026-5.
- Muhammad Fu'ad 'Abd al-Baqi, Al-Muʿjam al-Mufahras li-Alfaz al-Qur'an al-Karim (Cairo: Matabi' ash-Sha'b, 1278), pp. 182–83; and Hanna E. Kassis, A Concordance of the Qur'an (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 587–88.
- OCLC 56728422.
- ^ "Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
- ^ Seales, Rebecca (5 July 2018). "'My wife can never call my name in public'". BBC. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- ^ a b c Rudolph Peters, Jihād (The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World); Oxfordislamicstudies. Archived 21 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ Jonathon P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2003
- ^ Asma Afsaruddin (2013). Striving in the Path of God Jihad and Martyrdom in Islamic Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 11.
- ^ ibn Ismāʻīl Bukhārī, Muḥammad (1981). Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari. Vol. v4. Translated by Muhsin Khan, Muhammad. Medina: Dar al-Fikr. pp. 34–204.. Quoted in Streusand, Douglas E. (September 1997). "What Does Jihad Mean?". Middle East Quarterly: 9–17. Archived from the original on 8 September 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
In hadith collections, jihad means armed action; for example, the 199 references to jihad in the most standard collection of hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari, all assume that jihad means warfare.
- ^ ibn Ismāʻīl Bukhārī, Muḥammad (1981). Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari. Vol. v4. Translated by Muhsin Khan, Muhammad. Medina: Dar al-Fikr. pp. 34–204.
- ^ Streusand, Douglas E. (September 1997). "What Does Jihad Mean?". Middle East Quarterly. 4 (3): 9–17. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
- ^ Abdul-Kareem, Ibrahim (28 January 2011). "Protestors lose their fear of the Egyptian regime and perform the best jihad – the word of justice in front of the oppressive ruler". The Khilafah. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
- ^ Shehata, Ali (1 February 2011). "Reflections on the Protests in Egypt". MuslimMatters.org. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
- ISBN 978-1851685653.
- ^ Abi Zakaryya Al Dimashqi Al Dumyati (23 October 2016). The Book of Jihad. Translated by Yamani, Noor. pp. 107. Retrieved 9 August 2019 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Abi Zakaryya Al Dimashqi Al Dumyati (23 October 2016). The Book of Jihad. Translated by Yamani, Noor. pp. 177. Retrieved 9 August 2019 – via Internet Archive.
- ISBN 9789004242791.
- ISBN 0812218892.
- ISBN 9789004242791.
- ISBN 9789004242791.
- ISBN 9789004242791.
- ^ "Surah Al-Anfal - 15-16".
- ISBN 9780520931879.
- ISBN 9789004242791.
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari 5972
- ^ a b Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 76
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari 2784
- ^ Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 58.
- ^ a b c Bonney 2004, p. 34-35.
- ^ a b Bonney 2004, p. 35.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard, The Crisis of Islam, 2001 Chapter 2
- ^ Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 72.
- ISBN 978-9004048546.
- ^ a b "Jihad". BBC. 3 August 2009. Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ^ Fayd al-Qadir vol. 4 p. 511
- ^ a b Streusand, Douglas E. (September 1997). "What Does Jihad Mean?". Middle East Quarterly. iv (3): 9–17. Archived from the original on 8 September 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
- ^ "Sunnah.org". Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
- ^ Kadri 2012, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Kadri 2012, pp. 103, According to al-Ghazali, he [the Prophet] had told Muslims after their first major military victory at Badr that their struggle (jihad) was not won: they had only won a 'lesser struggle', while the greater struggle to fortify their spiritual defenses still lay ahead..
- ^ Majid Khadduri: War and Peace in the Law of Islam, p. 56
- S2CID 179091977.
- ^ Wilson, Jonathan A. J. (2011). "Refining Islamic Scholarship: Through Harmonising With Postmodern Social Sciences" (PDF). 'Ulum Islamiyyah: The Malaysian Journal of Islamic Sciences. 7. Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-59259-163-3.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - ^ Ware, Rudolph (31 August 2012). "Timbuktu: The Ink of Scholars and the Blood of Martyrs". Huffington Post. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- ISBN 9780796922045. Archived from the original(PDF) on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- ^ Morse, Felicity (13 January 2015). "The pen, the sword and the Prophet". BBC. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- ^ a b "Jihad in Islam: Just War Theory in the Quran and Sunnah". Yaqeeninstitute.org. 15 May 2020. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021.
- ^ a b c d Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones. Handbook to Life in the Medieval World. Infobase publishing. pp. 295–296.
- ^ Khomeini, Ruhollah (27 September 2012). "Jihad al-Akbar, The Greatest Jihad: Combat with the Self". al-Islam.org. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
- ^
Schaefer, Robert W. (22 October 2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. Praeger Security International. Santa Barbara, California: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 64. ISBN 9780313386350. Retrieved 22 November 2023.
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- ^ Mashood A. Baderin (2021). Islamic Law: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 119.
Similar to contemporary international law, there are more rules relating to jus in bello than to jus ad bellum under Islamic laws of war.
- ^ a b Abou El Fadl 1999, p. 150-151.
- ^ El Fadl 2001, p. 30.
- ^ Khalil 2017, p. 18-19.
- ^ a b c d e Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 78-79.
- ^ El Fadl 2001, p. 29quote=the majority [of jurists] argued that non-Muslims should only be fought against if they pose a danger to Muslims
- ^ Ibn Najīm, Al-Bahr al-Rā’iq, Vol. 5, p. 76.
- ^ Abou El Fadl 1999, p. 152.
- ^ Mairaj Syed (2013). "Jihad in Classical Islamic Legal and Moral Thought". Just War in Religion and Politics. University Press of America. p. 145.
- ^ a b Kohlberg, Etan, "The Development of the Imami Shi'i Doctrine of Jihad." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen Laendischen Gesellschaft, 126 (1976), pp. 64–86, esp. pp. 78–86
- ^ ISBN 9780199764310.
- ^ Prism 2010, p. 152.
- ^ Prism 2010, p. 155.
- ^ a b c d Vanhullebusch 2015, p. 33-35.
- ^ Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 78.
- ^ Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 134.
- ^ Prism 2010, p. 154.
- ^ Cook 2005, p. 55-56.
- ^ Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 117.
- ^ Kelsay 2009, p. 101.
- ^ a b c d Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 126-128.
- ^ Vanhullebusch 2015, p. 39.
- ^ ISBN 978-0271042145. Retrieved 24 September 2014.or raid.` ... Thus the standard form of desert warfare, periodic raids by the nomadic tribes against one another and the settled areas, was transformed into a centrally directed military movement and given and ideological rationale.
Islam ... instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief that a war against the followers of another faith was a holy war ... The fundamental structure of bedouin warfare remained, however, that of raiding to collect booty. ... another element in the normative understanding of jihad as religiously sanctioned war ... [was] the ghaza, `razzia
- ISBN 978-0521588133.
The Koran is not a squeamish document, and it exhorts the believers to jihad. Verses such as "Do not follow the unbelievers, but struggle against them mightily" (25.52) and "fight [those who have been given a revelation] who do not believe in God and the last day" (9.29) may originally have been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but they could be redirected once a new set of enemies appeared.
- ^ Khadduri, Majid (1955). "5. Doctrine of Jihad" (PDF). War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. p. 60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
The importance of the jihad in Islam lay in shifting the focus of attention of the tribes from their interribal warfare to the outside word; Islam outlawed all forms of war except the jihad, that is the war in Allah's path. It would indeed, have been very difficult for the Islamic state to survive had it not been for the doctrine of the jihad, replacing tribal raids, and directing that enormous energy of the tribes from an inevitable internal conflict to unite and fight against the outside world in the name of the new faith.
- ^ "Djihād". Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
- ^ R. Peters (1977), p. 3
- ^ a b Lews, Bernard, Islam and the West, Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 9–10
- ^ Kadri 2012, p. 1501.
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- ^ a b Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 90
- ^ Majid Khadduri, The Islamic Law of Nations, p. 58.
- ^ a b Kadri 2012, pp. 150–51.
- ^ Albrecht Noth, "Der Dschihad: sich mühen für Gott. In: Gernot Rotter, Die Welten des Islam: neunundzwanzig Vorschläge, das Unvertraute zu verstehen" (Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1993), p. 27
- ^ Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (The Johns Hopkins Press, 1955), pp. 74–80
- ISBN 978-0812967852. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
According to Islamic law, it is lawful to wage war against four types of enemies: infidels, apostates, rebels, and bandits. Although all four types of war are legitimate, only the first two count as jihad.
- ISBN 9780684807126. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- ISBN 978-0061189036.
- ^ Muhammad Hamidullah, The Muslim Conduct of State, Ashraf Printing Press 1987, pp. 205–08
- ^ Bonner 2006, p. 3.
- ^ Bonner 2006, p. 99.
- S2CID 143395594.
- ^ Chaudhry, Muhammad Sharif. "Dynamics of Islamic Jihad, Spoils of War". Muslim Tents. Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 29 March 2016.
- OCLC 52901690.
- ISBN 978-1-107-09645-5.
- ^ a b c Khadduri, Majid (1955). "5. Doctrine of Jihad" (PDF). War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
[Unlike the five pillars of Islam, jihad was to be enforced by the state.] ... 'unless the Muslim community is subjected to a sudden attack and therefore all believers, including women and children are under the obligation to fight—[jihad of the sword] is regarded by all jurists, with almost no exception, as a collective obligation of the whole Muslim community,' meaning that 'if the duty is fulfilled by a part of the community it ceases to be obligatory on others'.
- ^ a b c d Broucek, James (2014). "Combat". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Prism 2010, p. 157.
- ^ Prism 2010, p. 153.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West, Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 4
- ^ Bonner 2006, p. 60-61.
- ^ Al-Dawoody 2011, p. 87.
- ^ Bonner 2006, p. 62-63.
- ^ The early Muslim era of expansion (632–750 CE, or the Rashidun and Umayyad eras) preceded the "classical era" (750–1258 CE) which coincided with the beginning and the end of the Abbasid Caliphate.
- ^ Gibb, H.A.R. (Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen) (1969). Mohammedanism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 117.
- ISBN 978-9004048546.
- ISBN 978-1-107-09645-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-9004048546.
- ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
In Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's writings, jihad is a special and specific type of warfare, which can be declared only by the religious leader (imam) and whose purpose is the defense of the Muslim community from aggression." .. "What Shaltut calls for here is not only a defensive response but also the right to live peacefully without fear for life, home, or possessions, all of which is consistent with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's assertion of jihad as a defensive activity designed to restore order and preserve life and property."... "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's definition of jihad is restricted to a defensive military action designed to protect and preserve the Muslim community and its right to practice its faith".. "For Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, jihad is always a defensive military action. Here he is synchronous with Islamic modernist writers, who narrow the confines of jihad to defensive action..
- ^ Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2005), p. 125
- ISBN 978-0195169911.
- ISBN 978-0195169911.
- ^ Peters, Rudolph (1996). Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader. Princeton: Marcus Wiener. p. 48.
- ^ Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 72.
- ^ a b Lewis, Bernard (19 November 2001). "The Revolt of Islam". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 4 September 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
- ISBN 9781596988194.
- ^ Prism 2010, p. 158-159.
- ^ Muhammad Katib Hazarah, Fayz (2012). "The History Of Afghanistan Fayż Muḥammad Kātib Hazārah's Sirāj Al Tawārīkh By R. D. Mcchesney, M. M. Khorrami". AAF: 61. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
- ^ a b Bonner 2006, p. 157-158.
- ^ a b Bonner 2006, p. 159-160.
- ^ Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom. Washington DC: Regnery Publishing. pp. 7–8.
... the revival of jihad, and its prioritization as a religious value, is found in the works of high-level Saudi religious officials like former chief justice Sheikh Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Humaid: `Jihad is a great deed indeed [and] there is no deed whose reward and blessing is as that of it, and for this reason, it is the best thing one can volunteer for.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West, Oxford University Press, 1993
- ISBN 978-0-253-00339-3.
- ^ Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (First ed.). Regnery Publishing. p. 24.
- ISBN 9781136489846. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- ^ Kadri 2012, pp. 157.
- ^ "The Islamic Revolution of 1920". al-islam.org. 27 February 2013.
- ^ Van Slooten, Pippi. "Dispelling Myths about Islam and Jihad", Peace Review, Vol. 17, Issue 2, 2005, pp. 289–90.
- ISBN 9780375508592.
- ^ "Article eight of the Hamas Covenant. The Slogan of the Islamic Resistance Movement". Yale Law School. Avalon Project. Yale Law School. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
Allah is its target, the Prophet is its model, the Koran its constitution: Jihad is its path and death for the sake of Allah is the loftiest of its wishes.
- ^ Al-Banna, Hasan, Five Tracts of Hasan Al-Banna, (1906–49): A Selection from the "Majmu'at Rasa'il al-Imam al-Shahid Hasan al-Banna", Translated by Charles Wendell. Berkeley, CA, 1978, pp. 150, 155;
- ^ Kadri 2012, pp. 158.
- ISBN 978-1780410395. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
The Muslim Brothers believed a well-planned Jihad to be the only means to liberate Palestine. Its press confirmed that Jihad became an individual obligation upon every Muslim ... [who would] gain one of the two desirable goals (i.e. gaining victory or dying martyrs). The jurists of the Group issued a fatwa during the 1948 War that Muslims had to postpone pilgrimage and offer their money for Jihad (in Palestine) instead.
- ISBN 978-0253208668.
According to the [Muslim Brotherhood] society, the jihad for Palestine will start after the completion of the Islamic transformation of Palestinian society, the completion of the process of Islamic revival, and the return to Islam in the region. Only then can the call for jihad be meaningful, because the Palestinians cannot along liberate Palestine without the help of other Muslims.
- ISBN 978-1439129418.
Sheikh Yasin had initially argued in typical Muslim Brotherhood tradition that violent jihad against Israel would be counterproductive until Islamic regimes had been established throughout the Muslim realm. But the outbreak of the Intifada changed his mind: Islamic reconquest would have to start rather than end with jihad in Palestine. So stated the Hamas covenant.
- ^ "Hamas Covenant 1988". Yale Law School Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
[part of Article 13 of the Covenant] There is no solution for the Palestinian question except through Jihad. Initiatives, proposals and international conferences are all a waste of time and vain endeavors.
- ^ a b Sohail H. Hashmi, ed. (2012). Just Wars, Holy Wars, and Jihads. Oxford University Press. p. 14.
- ISBN 978-0195169911.
- ^ Peters, Rudolph (1996). Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader. Princeton: Marcus Wiener. p. 127.
- ^ Qutb, Milestones, 1988, 125–26
- ^ DeLong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam, 2004: 264
- ^ Qutb, Sayyid. Milestones (PDF). pp. 82, 60. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
- ^ Symon, Fiona (16 October 2001). "Analysis: The roots of jihad". BBC. Archived from the original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
For Qutb, all non-Muslims were infidels—even the so-called "people of the book", the Christians and Jews—and he predicted an eventual clash of civilisations between Islam and the west.
- ^ Cook, David, Understanding Jihad by David Cook, University of California Press, 2005 (p. 107-108)
- ^ Farag, al-Farida al-gha'iba, (Amman, n.d.), pp. 26, 28; trans. Johannes Jansen, The Neglected Duty, (New York, 1986)
- ^ Cook, David, Understanding Jihad by David Cook, University of California Press, 2005 pp. 190, 192
- ^ Gerges, The far enemy, 2010: 9
- ^ Gerges, The far enemy, 2010: 11
- ^ "Afghan War | History & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. 24 May 2023.
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- ^ Riedel, Bruce (11 September 2011). "The 9/11 Attacks' Spiritual Father". Brooking. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
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- ^ ISBN 978-1596988194.
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- ^ "Miracles of jihad in Afghanistan – Abdullah Azzam"| archive.org| Edited by A.B. al-Mehri| Al Aktabah Booksellers and Publishers| Birmingham, England
- ^ a b Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 174.
- ^ Kepel, Gilles, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam by Gilles Kepel, p. 143
- ^ Katz, Samuel M. "Relentless Pursuit: The DSS and the manhunt for the al-Qaeda terrorists", 2002
- ^ Wright, Lawrence, Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, by Lawrence Wright, New York, Knopf, 2006, p. 130
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. 156–57.
- JSTOR 20049126.
- ^ Hassan, Hassan. "The rise of Shia jihadism in Syria will fuel sectarian fires". The National. No. 5 June 2013. Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
- Walter de Gruyter(1978), p. 142
- Walter de Gruyter(1978), p. 148
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- ^ "Houthis recruit 50,000 Yemen child soldiers in 3 months, minister says". The Defense Post. 20 June 2019.
- ^ a b c Kadri 2012, p. 172.
- ^ Kadri 2012, p. 175.
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- ^ Kadri 2012, p. 150.
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- ^ a b c d e al-Saud, Abdullah K.; Winter, Charlie (4 December 2016). "Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir: The Obscure Theologian Who Shaped ISIS". The Atlantic. Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
- ^ a b Editor, Mark Townsend Home Affairs (12 May 2018). "The core Isis manual that twisted Islam to legitimise barbarity". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 June 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
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To struggle or exert oneself for a cause........جاهََدَ، يجاهِد، الجهاد
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- ^ Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Quran, (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980), pp. 63–64.
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- Al-Dawoody, Ahmed (2011). The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230111608.
- "Djihad" in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 415. .
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- ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1398h). Kitab al-Tawhid, volume I of Mu'allafat al-Shaykh al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahahb (First ed.). Riyad: Jamiat al-Imam MUhammad bin Saudi al-Islamiyah.
- Bonney, Richard (2004). Jihad: From Qu'ran to Bin Laden. Palgrave Macmillan.
- ISBN 978-0195043983.
- Howard M. Hensel, ed. (2010). The Prism of Just War: Asian and Western Perspectives on the Legitimate Use of Military Force. Ashgate. ISBN 9780754675105.
- Jalal, Ayesha (2010). Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia. ISBN 9780674047365.
- Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia. London: ISBN 978-0099523277.
- Kelsay, John (2009). Arguing the Just War in Islam. ISBN 9780674032347.
- Qutb, Sayyid (1988). Milestones (PDF). Karachi: International Islamic Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
- Khalil, Mohammad Hassan (2017). Jihad, Radicalism, and the New Atheism. ISBN 9781108421546.
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- Gerges, Fawaz A. (2009). The far enemy: why Jihad went global (reprint 2010 ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521519359.
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- Majid Khadduri (2006). War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Lawbook Exchange.
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Further reading
- Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti, Tolleranza e guerra santa nell'Islam, Scuola aperta/Sansoni, Firenze, 1974
- David Cook Understanding Jihad, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
- Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Ronald Messier (1991). The Jihad and Its Times. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, University of Michigan.
- DeLong-Bas, Natana (2010). Jihad: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press
- Reuven Firestone: Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
- Hashami, Sohail H., ed. Just Wars, Holy Wars, and Jihads: Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Encounters and Exchanges (Oxford University Press; 2012)
- Johnson, James Turner (1997). The Holy War Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271042145.
- John Kelsay: Just War and Jihad New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
- Shiraz Maher, Salafi-Jihadism: The History of an Idea, Oxford University Press, 2016
- Suhas Majumdar: Jihad: The Islamic Doctrine of Permanent War; New Delhi, July 1994
- Malik, S. K. (1986). The Quranic Concept of War (PDF). Himalayan Books. ISBN 978-8170020202.
- Nicola Melis, "A Hanafi treatise on rebellion and ğihād in the Ottoman age (XVII c.)", in Eurasian Studies, Istituto per l'Oriente/Newham College, Roma-Napoli-Cambridge, Volume II; Number 2 (December 2003), pp. 215–26.
- McGregor, A. (2006). "Jihad and the Rifle Alone: 'Abdullah 'Azzam and the Islamist Revolution". Journal of Conflict Studies. 23 (2).
- Alfred Morabia, Le Ğihâd dans l'Islâm médiéval. "Le combat sacré" des origines au XIIe siècle, Albin Michel, Paris 1993
- Masood Ashraf Raja (2009). "Jihad in Islam: Colonial Encounter, the Neoliberal Order, and the Muslim Subject of Resistance". The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 26 (4): 25.
- ISBN 9781558763593.
- Rothman, Norman C. (2018). "Jihad: Peaceful Applications for Society and the Individual". Comparative Civilizations Review. 79 (7).