Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent

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Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent is conventionally said to have started in 712, after the conquest of

Ghurids, and Sultan Muhammad of Ghor
(r. 1173–1206) is generally credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in Northern India.

From the late 12th century onwards, Muslim empires dominated the subcontinent, most notably the

Persianate culture
and Islam.

The height of Islamic rule was marked during the reign of

Fatawa Alamgiri was compiled, which briefly served as the legal system of Mughal Empire.[5] Additional Islamic policies were re-introduced in South India by Mysore's de facto king Tipu Sultan.[6]

Hindustani music, Qawwali and the further development of dance forms such as Kathak.[10][11] Religions such as Sikhism and Din-e-Ilahi were born out of a fusion of Hindu and Muslim religious traditions as well.[12]

In the 18th century the Islamic influence in india begin to decline following the

Nawabs and Sultans
.

Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, large parts of India were colonized by the

East India Company, eventually establishing the British Raj in 1857. Regional Islamic rule would remain under Princely states, such as Hyderabad State, Junagadh State, Jammu and Kashmir State and other minor princely states
until the mid of the 20th century.

Today,

Muslim
minority population in the world numbering over 180 million.

History

Early Muslim dominions

See also: Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent and Umayyad campaigns in India

Local kings who converted to

Ghurids
.

Delhi Sultanate

Main article: Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate in 1330-1335 during Tughlaq era

The Delhi Sultanate was the first of the two major Islamic empires which was based in mainland India between 1206 and 1526. It emerged after the disintegration of the

Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji was established. Shamsuddīn Iltutmish (1211–1236), established the Delhi Sultanate on a firm basis, which enabled future sultans to push in every direction. Within the next 100 years, the Delhi Sultanate extended its way east to Bengal and south to the Deccan. The sultanate was in constant flux as five dynasties rose and fell: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90),[13] Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414–51),[14] and Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).[15]
Power in Delhi was often gained by violence—nineteen of the thirty-five sultans were assassinated—and was legitimized by reward for tribal loyalty. Factional rivalries and court intrigues were as numerous as they were treacherous; territories controlled by the sultan expanded and shrank depending on his personality and fortunes.

The Delhi sultanate peaked under

Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1335. However, it came under gradual decline afterwards, with kingdoms like the Bengal Sultanate, Madurai Sultanate, Khandesh Sultanate and Bahmani Sultanate all asserting independence. Timur's invasion in 1398 only accelerated the process, and the Gujarat Sultanate and Jaunpur Sultanate broke away. Some of these kingdoms, such as Jaunpur, were again brought back under the Delhi Sultanate's control, although the rest remained independent from central rule until the conquests of the Mughal Empire
in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Both the

Persian wheel, prolonged political instability and parasitic methods of tax collection brutalized the peasantry. Yet trade and a market economy, encouraged by the free-spending habits of the aristocracy, acquired new impetus both in India and overseas. Experts in metalwork, stonework and textile manufacture responded to the new patronage with enthusiasm. In this period Persian language and many Persian cultural aspects became dominant in the centers of power, as the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate had been thoroughly Persianized since the era of the Ghaznavids.[19]

The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan.
Mughal empire in 1707

Mughal Empire

Main article: Mughal Empire

The

Sur dynasty
between 1540 and 1556, the Mughals continued to rule in one form or other till 1857.

India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.[20] Mughal economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.

After the death of Aurangzeb, the empire declined and reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1757 to 1760. The decline of the Mughals in the 18th century provided opportunity for the

Nawabs of Oudh and Bengal as well as Nizam of Hyderabad to become independent. The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857
.

Western and central India

Sultan Alauddin Khalji (r.1296–1316) carried out extensive conquests in the western India. He invaded the kingdoms of Gujarat (raided in 1299 and annexed in 1304), Jaisalmer (1299), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308), and Jalore (1311). These victories ended several Rajput and other Hindu dynasties, including the Paramaras, the Vaghelas, the Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura and Jalore, the Rawal branch of the Guhilas, and possibly the Yajvapalas; and permanently establishing Muslim rule in the regions of central and western India. After his death, independent Islamic kingdoms emerged there.

Gujarat Sultanate

The

Gujarat, India
.

Map of Indian subcontinent in 1525. Sultanates of Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, Kashmir and Delhi as well as Deccan sultanates can be seen in the south.

Malwa Sultanate

The

Mughal empire from its last ruler, Baz Bahadur
.

Other Western states

Sindh was ruled by a series of Muslim dynasties including Habbaris, Soomras, Sammas, Arghuns and Tarkhans, after the disintegration of Arab caliphate. Following decline of Mughal empire, Kalhora and Talpur Nawabs ruled Sindh. Kingdom of Mewat was also a prominent Muslim Rajput kingdom in Rajasthan.Gonds of Deogarh was also a Gond/tribal Islamic kingdom located in Nagpur,Maharashtra.

North India

Bengal Sultanate

Main article: Bengal Sultanate

In 1339, the Bengal region became independent from the

Satgaon, defeated Alauddin Ali Shah of Lakhnauti and Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah of Sonargaon; ultimately unifying Bengal into one single independent Sultanate. At its greatest extent, the Bengal Sultanate's realm and protectorates stretched from Jaunpur in the west, Tripura and Arakan in the east, Kamrup and Kamata in the north and Puri
in the south.

Although a

Gaur was the fifth-most populous city in the world with 200,000 residents.[26][27]

Ruins of the Adina Mosque, once the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent, in Pandua, the first capital of the Bengal Sultanate.

Persian was used as a diplomatic and commercial language. Arabic was the liturgical language of the clergy, and the

Taqi al-Din al-Fasi, a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah. The madrasa in Madinah was built at a place called Husn al-Atiq near the Prophet's Mosque.[31] Several other Bengali Sultans also sponsored madrasas in the Hejaz.[32]

The

Baro-Bhuiyans
. The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the Sultanate and brought all of Bengal under full Mughal control.

Jaunpur Sultanate

The

Bahlul Lodi, Sultan of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate
, which abruptly brought an end to independent Jaunpur and its reabsorption into the Delhi Sultanate.

Nawabs of Bengal

Nawab was a title given by the Mughals to the governors of different provinces. During disintegration of the empire in the 18th century, many Nawabs became de facto independent.

Hyderabad Deccan, Carnatic and Mysore
can also be seen.

In the early 18th-century, the

Oudh, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II at the Battle of Buxar
in 1764 paved the way for British expansion across India.

Nawabs of Awadh

Nawab of Awadh ruled major parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh. The Nawabs of Awadh, along with many other Nawabs, were regarded as members of the nobility of the greater Mughal Empire. They joined Ahmad Shah Durrani during the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and restored Shah Alam II (r. 1760–1788 and 1788–1806) to the imperial throne. The Nawab of Awadh also fought the Battle of Buxar (1764) preserving the interests of the Moghul. Oudh State eventually declared itself independent from the rule of the "Great Moghul" in 1818.[35]

Oudh joined other Indian states in an upheaval against British rule in 1858 during one of the last series of actions in the

Oudh campaign.[36]

Other Northern states

In northern India, the Multan-based

Khandesh Sultanate. The Kingdom of Rohilkhand
was also a major power in northern India in the 18th century.

South India

Till the early 14th century, south India was ruled by Hindu dynasties. During the reign of

laid siege upon the Kakatiya capital in Warangal. This victory over King Prataparudra ended the Kakatiya dynasty
. Although the control of Delhi sultanate was weakened after 1335 in the south, its successor Muslim states continued to rule Deccan plateau for next several centuries.

Bahmani Sultanate

Bahmani sultanate in 1470

The Muhammad bin Tughlaq's failure to hold securely the Deccan and South India resulted in the rise of competing for Southern dynasties: the

Hyderabad where cultural flowering is still expressed in vigorous schools of Deccani architecture and painting. The later rulers are buried in an elaborate tomb complex, known as the Bahmani Tombs.[40] The exterior of one of the tombs is decorated with coloured tiles. Arabic, Persian and Urdu inscriptions are inscribed inside the tombs.[40][41]

Deccan sultanates

Main articles: Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan sultanates

The Bahmani Sultanate lasted for almost two centuries, until it fragmented into five smaller states, known as the

Kannadiga Hindu convert; the Bidar Sultanate was founded by a Georgian slave; the Bijapur Sultanate was founded by a Georgian slave purchased by Mahmud Gawan and the Golconda Sultanate was of Turkmen
origin.

Panorama depicting the Battle of Talikota (1565), in which Deccan sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara Empire. Ta'rif-i Husain Shahi (Chronicle of Husain Shah).

The rulers of the Deccan sultanates made a number of cultural contributions in the fields of literature, art, architecture, and music. An important contribution was the development of the

Bahamani rulers, developed into an independent spoken and literary language during this period by continuously borrowing from Arabic-Persian, Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu. Dakhani later became known as Dakhani Urdu to distinguish it from North Indian Urdu. Deccani miniature painting—which flourished in the courts of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda—is another major cultural contribution of the Deccan sultanates.[42]

When the rulers of the five

Battle of Talikot
.

Nizams of Hyderabad

Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi, a viceroy of the Deccan under the Mughal emperors from 1713 to 1721 who intermittently ruled under the title "Asaf Jah" in 1924. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire crumbled, and the viceroy in Hyderabad, the young Asaf Jah, declared..himself independent.
The dynasty ruled for 7 generations, with the last Nizam – Mir Osman Ali Khan showing an enormous contributions on the field of education, construction of major public buildings across the kingdom, setting up of Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway(NSGR), donations to Universities, temples[43] and donating 14,000 acres (5,700 ha) of land from his personal estate to Vinobha Bhave's Bhoodan movement.[44]

Mysore Kingdom

Mysore Kingdom in 1784.

Mysore Sultanate during the latter part of the 18th century. They made alliances with France and fought the Anglo-Mysore Wars
predominantly against the British.

Carnatic Sultanate

The Carnatic Sultanate was a kingdom in South India between about 1690 and 1855, and was under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad, until their demise.[45][46] The Nawabs of Carnatic eventually ceded tax rights to the British in 1801 following Carnatic wars, and the kingdom was abolished.

Other Southern states

Other southern states include the

Arakkal Kingdom (of modern-day Kerala) who were a subordinate of their masters the Kolathiris and the short-lived Madurai Sultanate
which was centered in and around Madurai and existed for barely 40 years.

See also

Literature

  • Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1960). The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VI: The Delhi Sultanate. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  • Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1973). The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VII: The Mughal Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  • Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John.
    The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List
    )

References

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