Schools of Islamic theology

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See Islamic schools and branches for sectarian divisions within Islam; see aqidah for the concept of "creed" in Islam; see kalam for the concept of theological discourse.
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Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding creed. The main schools of Islamic theology include the extant Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools; the extinct ones include the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini schools.

The main schism between Sunni, Shia, and Khariji branches of Islam was initially more political than theological, but theological differences have developed over time throughout the history of Islam.[1]

Divinity schools in Islamic theology

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    According to the

    attributes of God in Islam, predestination, and human free-will.[3][4]

    The original schism between Kharijites, Sunnīs, and Shīʿas among Muslims was a dispute over the political and religious succession to the leadership of the Ummah (Muslim community) after the death of the Muhammad.[1] From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims.[1] Shīʿas believe ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnīs consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War);[1] they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfīr (excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).[1]

    Ḥanafī schools of Islamic jurisprudence
    .

    In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools of Islamic theology to develop were the Muʿtazila in the mid-8th century CE.[3][6] Muʿtazilite theologians emphasized the use of reason and rational thought, positing that the injunctions of God are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the Quran was created (makhlūq) rather than co-eternal with God, which would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology.[3][6]

    In the 9th–10th century CE, the

    Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān (8th century CE), whereas al-Ashʿarī never held such a view.[8]

    According to the Afghan-American philosopher Sayed Hassan Hussaini, the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among classical Muslim philosophers are characterized by "a rich color of Deism with a slight disposition toward theism".[9]

    Another point of contention was the relative position of

    ʿIlm al-Kalām, or "science of discourse", as opposed to mystical schools who deny that any theological truth may be discovered by means of discourse or reason.[citation needed
    ]

    Sunnī schools of theology

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    Sunni schools of theology

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    Sunnī schools of thought[10]

    Most Sunnis have adopted the Ash‘ariyya school of theology,[11] but the similar Mātūrīd’iyyah school also has Sunni adherents.[12]

    Ahl as-Sunnah'. The word Sunni comes from the word Sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Therefore, the term "Sunni" refers to those who follow or maintain the Sunnah of Muhammad
    .

    The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor to lead the Muslim

    Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as "al-Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs". After the Rashidun
    , the position turned into a hereditary right and the caliph's role was limited to being a political symbol of Muslim strength and unity.

    Athari

    Main article:
    Athari
    Further information: Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Dawud al-Zahiri, Al-Tabari, Al-Tahawi, and Ibn Taymiyya

    Atharism (

    Arabic: أثري; textualism) is a movement of Islamic scholars who reject rationalistic Islamic theology (kalam) in favor of strict textualism in interpreting the Quran.[13] The name is derived from the Arabic word athar, literally meaning "remnant" and also referring to a "narrative".[14]
    It has a minority position amongst the scholars and their disciples are called the Athariyya, or Atharis.

    For followers of the Athari movement, the "clear" meaning of the Qur'an, and especially the prophetic traditions, has sole authority in matters of belief, and to engage in rational disputation (kalam), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden.

    Bi-la kaifa
    ".

    On the other hand, the famous

    ta'wil
     are amongst the fundamental characteristics of this "new" Islamic school of theology.

    ʿIlm al-Kalām

    Main article:
    Ilm al-Kalam

    Maturidi schools in Sunni Islam. Traditionalist theology rejects the use of kalam, regarding humans reason as sinful in unseen matters.[23]

    Muʿtazila

    Main article:
    Muʿtazila
    Further information:
    Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad, Al-Jahiz, and Al-Zamakhshari

    Muʿtazila is a school of theology that appeared in early Islāmic history and were known for their neutrality in the dispute between

    Alī and his opponents after the death of the third caliph, Uthman. By the 10th century CE the term had also come to refer to an Islamic school of speculative theology (kalām) that flourished in Basra and Baghdad (8th–10th century).[24][25][26] According to Sunni sources, Muʿtazili theology originated in the eighth century in Basra (now in Iraq) when Wāṣil ibn ʿAṭā' (died 131 AH/748 AD) withdrew (iʿtazala, hence the name Mu'tazila) from the teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute regarding the issue of al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn (a position between two positions), where Wasil ibn Ata reasoned that a grave sinner (fāsiq) could be classed neither as believer nor unbeliever but was in an intermediate position (al-manzilah bayna manzilatayn).[27]

    The later Mu'tazila school developed an Islamic type of rationalism, partly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy, based around three fundamental principles: the oneness (Tawhid) and justice (Al-'adl) of God,[28] human freedom of action, and the creation of the Quran.[29] The Muʿtazilites are best known for rejecting the doctrine of the Quran as uncreated and co-eternal with God,[30] asserting that if the Quran is the word of God, he logically "must have preceded his own speech".[31] This went against the orthodox Sunni position which argued that with God being all knowing, his knowledge of the Quran must have been eternal, hence uncreated just like him.[32] Though Muʿtazilis later relied on logic and different aspects of early Islamic philosophy, ancient Greek philosophy, and Indian philosophy, the basics of Islam is their starting point and ultimate reference.[33][34]

    Several groups were later influenced by Muʿtazilite theology, such as the Bishriyya, who followed the teachings of Bishr ibn al-Mu'tamir, and the Bahshamiyya, who followed the teachings of Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i.[35][36]

    Ashʿarīyyah

    Main article:
    Ash'ari
    Further information: Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, Al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn Khaldun, and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani

    Ashʿarīyyah is a school of theology that was founded by the Arab Muslim scholar, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the 9th–10th century who developed the school of thought founded by Ibn Kullab a century earlier.[37][38][7]

    It established an orthodox guideline

    Muʿtazilite theology and philosophy.[48][49] He was noted for his teachings on atomism,[50] among the earliest Islamic philosophies, and for al-Ashʿarī this was the basis for propagating the view that God created every moment in time and every particle of matter. He nonetheless believed in free will, elaborating the thoughts of Dirar ibn 'Amr and Abu Hanifa into a "dual agent" or "acquisition" (iktisab) account of free will.[51]

    Al-Ashʿarī established a middle way between the doctrines of the

    traditionalist") schools for their over-emphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his Istihsan al‑Khaud.[54]

    Ashʿarism eventually became the predominant school of theological thought within Sunnī Islam,

    Ibn 'Asakir, al-Subki, al-Taftazani, al-Baqillani and al-Bayhaqi.[56]

    Mātūrīd’iyyah

    Main article:
    Maturidi
    Further information:
    Jalal al-Din Rumi

    The

    Hanafi school of fiqh who make up the majority of Sunni Muslims.[57]

    The Maturidi school takes the middle position between the Ash'ari and Mu'tazili schools on the questions of knowing truth and free will. The Maturidis say that the unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol or murder are evil without the help of revelation, but still maintain that revelation is the ultimate source of knowledge. Additionally, the Maturidi believe that God created and can control all of His creation, but that He allows humans to make individual decisions and choices for themselves.

    Ethics are considered to have objective existence. Humans are thus capable of recognizing good and bad without revelation, but reason alone.[58] However, prophets and revelation are necessary to explain matters beyond human reason.[59] In matters of the six articles of faith, Māturīdism notably holds the idea that paradise and hell coexist with the current world, and does not adhere to the doctrine of impeccability of angels.[60][61]

    Jahmiyyah

    Main article:
    Jahmites

    Jahmis were the followers of the Islamic theologian Jahm bin Safwan who associate himself with Al-Harith ibn Surayj. He was an exponent of extreme determinism according to which a man acts only metaphorically in the same way in which the sun acts or does something when it sets.[62]

    Qadariyyah

    Main article:
    Qadariyyah

    Maturidi
    school of theology, which asserted that God grants human beings their agency, but can remove or otherwise alter it at any time.

    Hasan al Basri (642 - 728) was the first who defined Qadariyya doctrines in a systematic way: 1) God creates only good, evil stems from free will. 2) Humanity has free will to choose doing the will of God or not. 3) God only leads humans astray if they first have given him the occasion to do so by demonstrating the intention to sin.[65] Related to the question of the origin of evil is the nature of the devil (Iblīs). By asserted the origin of the devil lies in his free will to sin, Qadariyya and later Mutazilites rejected the angelic origin of Iblīs.[66][67] Amr ibn Ubayd (died 761), one of Hasan's later students, became a leading figure in the Mutazilite movement, still advocating the Qadariyya belief in free will independent of God.[68]

    Muhakkima

    Main article: Muhakkima
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    The groups that were seceded from

    Ibadis
    .

    Khawarij

    Main article:
    Khawarij

    The

    Qur'anic
    verse which states that The decision is only for Allah (Qur'an 6:57), which the Kharijites interpreted to mean that the outcome of a conflict can only be decided in battle (by God) and not in negotiations (by human beings).

    The Kharijites thus deemed the arbitrators (

    Talha, Zubayr (both being companions of Muhammad) and Aisha had committed a Kabira (major sin in Islam).[69]

    Kharijites reject the doctrine of

    caliph.[69]
    Additionally, Kharijites believed that obedience to the caliph is binding as long as he is managing the affairs with justice and consultation, but if he deviates, then it becomes obligatory to confront him, demote him and even kill him.

    Ibadiyya

    Main article:
    Ibadi

    Mu'tazila schools, mainstream Sunni Islam, and some Shīʿīte sects.[71]

    Murji'ah

    Main article: Murji'ah

    iman) but rather their piety (taqwa). Therefore, they advocated the idea of "delayed judgement", (irjaa). The Murji'ah maintain that anyone who proclaims the bare minimum of faith must be considered a Muslim, and sin alone cannot cause someone to become a disbeliever (kafir). The Murjite opinion would eventually dominate that of the Kharijites and become the mainstream opinion in Sunni Islam
    . The later schools of Sunni theology adopted their stance while form more developed theological schools and concepts.

    Shīʿa schools of theology

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    Main articles:
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    Zaydi-Fivers

    The

    Zaydi denomination of Shīʿa Islam is close to the Muʿtazila school in matters of theological doctrine. There are a few issues between both schools, most notably the Zaydi doctrine of the Imamate, which is rejected by the Muʿtazilites. Amongst the Shīʿa, Zaydis are most similar to Sunnīs,[72] since Zaydism shares similar doctrines and jurisprudential opinions with Sunnī scholars.[73]

    Bāṭin’iyyah

    Main articles: Batin (Islam), Esoteric interpretation of the Quran, and Sufi cosmology
    Further information:
    Hashashins

    The

    Twelver
    denominations of Shīʿa Islam.

    Imami-Ismā'īlīs

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    Main articles:
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    The

    Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl al-Maktum as the next imam.[80]

    Further information:
    Taiyabi Ismaili

    Batini-Twelver ʿAqīdah schools

    Main article:
    Batiniyyah

    The followers of

    Ja'fari jurisprudence. Their combined population is nearly around 1% of the global Muslim population.[81]

    Alevism
    Main articles: Alevism, Sufism, Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar, Qalandariyya, Haji Bektash Veli, and Bektashi Order

    The Twelve Imams, but reject polygamy and accept religious traditions predating Islam, like Turkic shamanism. They are significant in East-Central Turkey. They are sometimes considered a Sufi brotherhood, and have an untraditional form of religious leadership that is not scholarship-oriented like other Sunnī and Shīʿa groups. 7 to 11 million Alevis, including the other denominations of Twelver Shīʿītes, live in Anatolia.[81]

    Alevi Islamic school of divinity
    Main articles:
    Safaviyya, Shaykh Haydar, Qizilbash, Imadaddin Nasimi, Hurufism, and Bektashism and folk religion

    In

    Shia Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, and are called "Ja'faris".[citation needed
    ]

    Further information:
    Nur al-Din Muhammad II
    Baktāshism (Bektaşilik)
    Main article:
    Bektashism
    sufi order, Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli (Ḥājjī Baktāsh Walī)
    Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity
    Main articles:
    Wahdat-ul-Wujood

    The Bektashiyyah is a Shia Sufi order founded in the 13th century by Haji Bektash Veli, a dervish who escaped Central Asia and found refuge with the Seljuks in Anatolia at the time of the Mongol invasions (1219–23). This order gained a great following in rural areas and it later developed in two branches: the Çelebi clan, who claimed to be physical descendants of Haji Bektash Veli, were called "Bel evladları" (children of the loins), and became the hereditary spiritual leaders of the rural Alevis; and the Babağan, those faithful to the path "Yol evladları" (children of the way), who dominated the official Bektashi Sufi order with its elected leadership.[citation needed]

    Imam
    Ali's birthday.

    In keeping with the central belief of

    Qur'an and the prophetic practice (Sunnah). They have no written doctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has been taught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi mystics outside of their own order, such as Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali and Jelalludin Rumi
    who are close in spirit to them.

    The Baktāshi ʿaqīdah
    Marifa
    is the essence of all four stations.
    Main articles:
    Marifa

    The Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such as the need for an experienced spiritual guide — called a

    Marifa
    " (true knowledge).

    Bektashis hold that the Qur'an has two levels of meaning: an outer (

    Ismailism and Batiniyya.[78]

    Hajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town of Hacıbektaş (Solucakarahüyük)
    .

    Further information: Alians, Arabati Baba Teḱe, Bektashism and folk religion, Demir Baba Teke, and Hurufism

    Ithnā'ashariyyah

    Main articles:
    Imamah (Shia Twelver doctrine)

    madh'habs
    .

    Imami-Ja'faris

    Main articles:
    Theology of Twelvers

    Followers of the

    Theology of Twelvers
    :

    Usulism

    The Usuli form the overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. They follow a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iraq, and Lebanon.

    Further information:
    Usulism
    Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq, where Shias believe Ali is buried.
    Akhbarism

    Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in Bahrain.

    Further information:
    Akhbarism
    Shaykhism

    Shaykhism is an Islamic religious movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in the early 19th century Qajar dynasty, Iran, now retaining a minority following in Iran and Iraq. It began from a combination of Sufi and Shia and Akhbari doctrines. In the mid 19th-century many Shaykhis converted to the Bábí and Baháʼí religions, which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.

    Further information: Shaykhism

    Ghulāt-Imamis

    Main articles:
    imami
    ‘Alawism
    Main articles:
    Al-Khaṣībī, Ibn Nusayr, and Alawites

    ‘Alawis.[84][87] One million three hundred and fifty thousand of them lived in Syria and Lebanon in 1970. It is estimated they are 10–12% of the population of Syria of 23 million in 2013.[88]

    ‘Alawite Islamic School of Divinity

    Alawites consider themselves to be Muslims, although some Sunnis dispute that they are.

    syncretistic.[90][91] Their theology is based on a divine triad,[89][92][93] or trinity, which is the core of Alawite belief.[94] The triad comprises three emanations of the one God: the supreme aspect or entity called the "Essence"[94] or the "Meaning"[93] (both being translations of ma'na), together with two lesser emanations known as his "Name" (ism), or "Veil" (hijab), and his "Gate" (bab).[92][93][94][95] These emanations have manifested themselves in different human forms over several cycles in history, the last cycle of which was as Ali (the Essence/Meaning), Muhammad (the Name) and Salman the Persian (the Gate).[92][94][95][96] Alawite belief is summarised in the formula: "I turn to the Gate; I bow before the Name; I adore the Meaning".[89] The claim that Alawites believe Ali is a deity has been contested by some scholars as a misrepresentation on the basis that Ali is, in fact, considered an "essence or form", not a human being, by which believers can "grasp God".[97] Alawites also hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or metempsychosis[94]) before returning to heaven.[89][95] They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.[89][98]

    Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.

    Eid al-Ghadeer
    .

    The ‘Alawite ʿaqīdah

    Alawites have always described themselves as being Twelver Shi'ite Muslims and have been recognized as such by the prominent Lebanese Shi'ite cleric

    Salafis) scholars such as Ibn Kathir (a disciple of Ibn Taymiyya) have categorised Alawites as pagans in their writings.[101][109][110]

    Imami Shia as Alawite.[112] Additionally, there has been a recent movement to unite Alawism and the other branches of Twelver Islam through educational exchange programs in Syria and Qom.[113]

    Some sources have discussed the "Sunnification" of

    Dīn (religion) is Islam.[99]

    Kızılbaşlık
    Main articles: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam and Qizilbash
    The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah
    Turkmen people
    .

    Bektashi developed traditions, practices, and doctrines by the early 17th century which marked them as a closed autonomous religious community. As a result of the immense pressures to conform to Sunni Islam, all members of Alevism developed a tradition of opposition (ibāḥa) to all forms of external religion.[citation needed
    ]

    The doctrine of

    tariqah Shāh Ismāʿil Khatai
    :

    من داها نسنه بيلمه زه م / Men daha nesne bilmezem, (I don't know any other object)

    ١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)

    اؤزوم غوربتده سالمازام / Özüm gurbette salmazam, (I can't let out my own essence to places far from my homeland)

    ١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)

    اونلار بيردير، بير اولوبدور / Onlar birdir, bir oluştur, (They are unique, a single one, i.e.

    Haqq-Muhammad-Ali
    )

    يئردن گؤيه نور اولوبدور / Yerden göğe nûr oluştur, (It's a nūr from Earth to Sky)

    دؤرد گوشه ده سيرر اولوبدور، / Dört guşede sır oluştur, (It's a mysterious

    secret
    in every corner of the square)

    ١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)

    ختايى بو يولدا سردير /

    secret
    )

    سرين وئره نلر ده اردير /

    secret are private
    as well)

    آيدا سيردير، گونده نوردور /

    Secret on Moon, nūr on day
    )

    ١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)

    The lines of poetry above may easily be judged as an act of "

    Sunni Ulama, but they have a bāṭenī[86] taʾwīl (inner explanation) in Qizilbashism
    .

    Further information:
    Haqq-Muhammad-Ali

    Tashbih

    Main articles:
    Anthropopathy

    Karram’iyyah

    Main article: Karramiyya

    Anthropopathic Karram’iyyah was founded by Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Karrām.[116] Ibn Karram considered that God was a substance and that He had a body (jism) finite in certain directions when He comes into contact with the Throne.[117][71][118]

    Further information: Anthropomorphism

    Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shīʿīsm

    Main articles:
    Anthropotheism

    The belief of

    God incarnates
    .

    Further information:
    Kaysanites Shia, and Khurramites

    Ahmadiyya

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    Miscellaneous

    The

    heretics.[120][121][122][123]

    Ahmadi teachings state that the founders of all the major world religions had divine origins. God was working towards the establishment of Islam as the final religion, because it was the most complete and included all the previous teachings of other religion[124] (but they believe that all other religions have gone astray in their present form). The completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the coming of Muhammad; and that the perfection of the ‘manifestation’ of Muhammad's prophethood and of the conveyance of his message was destined to occur with the coming of the Mahdi.[125]

    The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community are not Muslims[clarification needed] but regard Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ") the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a 'subordinate' prophet to Muhammad whose job was to restore the Sharia given to Muhammad by guiding or rallying disenchanted Ummah back to Islam and thwart attacks on Islam by its opponents, as the "Promised One" of all religions fulfilling eschatological prophecies found in the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions, as well as Zoroastrianism, the Indian religions, Native American traditions and others.[126] Ahmadi Muslims believe that Ahmad was divinely commissioned as a true reflection of Muhammad's prophethood to establish the unity of God and to remind mankind of their duties towards God and God's creation.[127][128]

    See also

    References

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    11. ^ “Ash‘ariyya” by W. Montgomery Watt in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. I, p. 696.
    12. ^ Heer, Nicholas (n.d.). "A LECTURE ON ISLAMIC THEOLOGY" (PDF). University of Washington Faculty. pp. 9–10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
    13. Shafi'ite
      , which retained influence, or at the very least a shared sentiment and conception of piety, well beyond the limited range of Hanbalite communities. This body of scholars continued to reject theology in favor of strict textualism well after Ash'arism had infiltrated the Sunni schools of law. It is for these reasons that we must delineate the existence of a distinctly traditionalist, anti-theological movement, which defies strict identification with any particular madhhab, and therefore cannot be described as Hanbalite.
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    Further reading

    External links

    New International Encyclopedia article about "Islamic schools and branches
    ".
    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schools_of_Islamic_theology&oldid=1217296164"