Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Alfonso X (c. 1285).[1]

During the

medicine. Translation of Arabic philosophical texts into Latin "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world", with a particularly strong influence of Muslim philosophers being felt in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics.[2] Other contributions included technological and scientific innovations via the Silk Road, including Chinese inventions such as paper, compass[3][4] and gunpowder
.

The Islamic world also influenced other aspects of medieval European culture, partly by

music, pottery
, etc.

Many Arabic loanwords in Western European languages, including English, mostly via Old French, date from this period.[5] This includes traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, etc. and names of commodities such as sugar, camphor, cotton, coffee, etc.

Transmission routes

Further information: Latin translations of the 12th century, Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture, and Arab Agricultural Revolution
world maps of its era
.

Europe and the Islamic lands had multiple points of contact during the Middle Ages. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe lay in

Gerard of Cremone, 1114–1187, following the conquest of the city by Spanish Christians in 1085). In Sicily, following the Islamic conquest of the island in 965 and its reconquest by the Normans in 1091, a syncretistic Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture developed, exemplified by rulers such as King Roger II, who had Islamic soldiers, poets and scientists at his court. The Moroccan Muhammad al-Idrisi wrote The Book of Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands or Tabula Rogeriana, one of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages, for Roger.[6]

The

Italian maritime republics taking a major role in these exchanges. In the Levant, in such cities as Antioch, Arab and Latin cultures intermixed intensively.[7]

During the 11th and 12th centuries, many Christian scholars traveled to Muslim lands to learn sciences. Notable examples include

Leonardo Fibonacci (c. 1170 –c. 1250), Adelard of Bath (c. 1080–c. 1152) and Constantine the African
(1017–1087). (inaccurate: None of the three mentioned actually "traveled to Muslim lands to learn sciences", Constantine may possibly have been born there in Arab lands, Fibonacci found himself there for family reasons, while Adelard probably learnt Arabic in Christian lands). From the 11th to the 14th centuries, numerous European students attended Muslim centers of higher learning (which the author calls "universities") to study medicine, philosophy, mathematics, cosmography and other subjects.[8]

Aristotelianism and other philosophies

Further information:
Corpus Aristotelicum, Early Islamic philosophy, Avicennism, and Averroism
A medieval Arabic representation of Aristotle teaching a student.

In the

Historia Animalium and On the Soul as well as of Averroes's commentaries)[9] during the Middle Ages.[1] Eastern Christians played an important role in exploiting this knowledge, especially through the Christian Aristotelian
School of Baghdad in the 11th and 12th centuries.

Later Latin translations of these texts originated in multiple places. Toledo, Spain (with Gerard of Cremona's Almagest) and Sicily became the main points of transmission of knowledge from the Islamic world to Europe.[10] Burgundio of Pisa (died 1193) discovered lost texts of Aristotle in Antioch and translated them into Latin.

From Islamic Spain, the

Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage
citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and Al-Khwarizmi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.

Averroes was influential in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[11]

William of Auvergne and Albertus Magnus have been noted.[13]

The effects of Avicennism were later submerged by the much more influential

Dante Aligheri argues along Averroist lines for a secularist theory of the state in De Monarchia.[11] Averroes also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[15]

Imaginary debate between Averroes and Porphyry. Monfredo de Monte Imperiali Liber de herbis, 14th century.[16]

Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on medieval Christian philosophy along with Jewish thinkers like Maimonides.[17]

George Makdisi (1989) has suggested that two particular aspects of Renaissance humanism have their roots in the medieval Islamic world, the "art of dictation, called in Latin, ars dictaminis," and "the humanist attitude toward classical language". He notes that dictation was a necessary part of Arabic scholarship (where the vowel sounds need to be added correctly based on the spoken word), and argues that the medieval Italian use of the term "ars dictaminis" makes best sense in this context. He also believes that the medieval humanist favouring of classical Latin over medieval Latin makes most sense in the context of a reaction to Arabic scholarship, with its study of the classical Arabic of the Koran in preference to medieval Arabic.[18]

Sciences

Further information: Latin translations of the 12th century and Science in the medieval Islamic world
A page from Frederick Rosen's 1831 edition of Al-Khwarizmi's Algebra alongside the corresponding English translation.

During the

chemistry, etc. which were later also transmitted to the West.[1][19]

Stefan of Pise translated into Latin around 1127 an Arab manual of medical theory. The method of

Descartes. Medical sciences were also highly developed in Islam as testified by the Crusaders, who relied on Arab doctors on numerous occasions. Joinville reports he was saved in 1250 by a "Saracen" doctor.[21]

Surgical operation
, 15th-century Turkish manuscript

Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars such as Gerard of Cremona for new learning. These scholars were interested in ancient Greek philosophical and scientific texts (notably the

Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics
).

Alchemy

See also:
Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
Jabir ibn Hayyan depicted in Liebig's Extract of Meat Company trading card "Chimistes Celebres", 1929.

Western

Liber de septuaginta ("Book of Seventy") attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan and translated by Gerard of Cremona (before 1187),[31] Abu Bakr al-Razi's Liber secretorum Bubacaris,[32] and Ibn Umayl's Tabula chemica.[33]

Many texts were also translated from anonymous Arabic sources and then falsely attributed to various authors, as for example the De aluminibus et salibus ("On Alums and Salts"), an 11th- or 12th-century text attributed in some manuscripts to Hermes Trismegistus or Abu Bakr al-Razi.[34] Other texts were directly written in Latin but still attributed to Arabic authors, such as the influential Summa perfectionis ("The Sum of Perfection") and other 13th-/14th-century works by pseudo-Geber.[35] Although these were original and often innovative texts, their anonymous authors probably knew Arabic and were still intimately familiar with Arabic sources.[36]

Several technical Arabic words from Arabic alchemical works, such as alkali,[37] found their way into European languages and became part of scientific vocabulary.

Astronomy, mathematics and physics

A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Hans Talhoffer, 1459)
See also:
Islamic mathematics, and Physics in the medieval Islamic world

The translation of

Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta).[39] were translated into Latin during the 12th century.[40]

A European and an Arab practicing geometry together. 15th-century manuscript
Astrolabe quadrant, England, 1388

Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
's Ta'rikh al-Hind and Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi were translated into Latin as Indica and Canon Mas’udicus respectively.

Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of Arabic numerals and the Hindu–Arabic numeral system in his Liber Abaci (1202).[27]

Al-Jayyani's The book of unknown arcs of a sphere (a treatise on spherical trigonometry) had a "strong influence on European mathematics".[42] Regiomantus' On Triangles (c. 1463) certainly took his material on spherical trigonometry (without acknowledgment) from Arab sources. Much of the material was taken from the 12th-century work of Jabir ibn Aflah, as noted in the 16th century by Gerolamo Cardano.[38]

A short verse used by

Batanalhaut, are alone enough for Pisces."[44]

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics (1021), in which he developed a theory of vision and light which built on the work of the Roman writer

Age of Exploration.[48]

The theory of motion developed by Avicenna from Aristotelian physics may have influenced Jean Buridan's theory of impetus (the ancestor of the inertia and momentum concepts).[50] The work of Galileo Galilei on classical mechanics (superseding Aristotelian physics) was also influenced by earlier medieval physics writers, including Avempace.[51]

Other notable works include those of

Arabic work on geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle.[27]

Medicine

See also: Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
al-Razi, in Gerard of Cremona's Receuil des traités de médecine (1250–1260). Gerard de Cremona translated numerous works by Muslim scholars, such as al-Razi and Ibn Sina.[54]
medicinal jars c. 1300, excavated in Fenchurch Street, London. Museum of London

One of the most important medical works to be translated was

infectious diseases (which he attributed to "traces" left in the air by a sick person), and discussed how to effectively test new medicines.[56] He also wrote The Book of Healing, a more general encyclopedia of science and philosophy, which became another popular textbook in Europe. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi wrote the Comprehensive Book of Medicine, with its careful description of and distinction between measles and smallpox, which was also influential in Europe. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi wrote Kitab al-Tasrif, an encyclopedia of medicine which was particularly famed for its section on surgery. It included descriptions and diagrams of over 200 surgical instruments, many of which he developed. The surgery section was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century, and used in European medical schools for centuries, still being reprinted in the 1770s.[57][58]

Facade of a meeting between a Muslim scholar and a Frankish lord

Other medical Arabic works translated into Latin during the medieval period include the works of Razi and Avicenna (including The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine),

Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopedia, The Complete Book of the Medical Art.[27]
Qur'an as well as various medical works.[60]

Technology and culture

Arab-Norman art and architecture combining Occidental features (such as the Classical pillars and friezes) with Islamic decorations and calligraphy.[61]

Agriculture and textiles

Further information: Arab Agricultural Revolution

Various

aubergine.[62]

Arts

Main article: Islamic influences on Western art

Islamic decorative arts were highly valued imports to Europe throughout the Middle Ages. Largely because of accidents of survival, most surviving examples are those that were in the possession of the church. In the early period textiles were especially important, used for church vestments, shrouds, hangings and clothing for the elite. Islamic pottery of everyday quality was still preferred to European wares. Because decoration was mostly ornamental, or small hunting scenes and the like, and inscriptions were not understood, Islamic objects did not offend Christian sensibilities.[63] Medieval art in Sicily is interesting stylistically because of the mixture of Norman, Arab and Byzantine influences in areas such as mosaics and metal inlays, sculpture, and bronze-working.[64]

Writing

Main article: Pseudo-Kufic
Virgin Mary's halo, detail of Adoration of the Magi (1423) by Gentile da Fabriano. The script is further divided by rosettes like those on Mamluk dishes.[65]

The Arabic Kufic script was often imitated for decorative effect in the West during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, to produce what is known as pseudo-Kufic: "Imitations of Arabic in European art are often described as pseudo-Kufic, borrowing the term for an Arabic script that emphasizes straight and angular strokes, and is most commonly used in Islamic architectural decoration".[66] Numerous cases of pseudo-Kufic are known from European art from around the 10th to the 15th century; usually the characters are meaningless, though sometimes a text has been copied. Pseudo-Kufic would be used as writing or as decorative elements in textiles, religious halos or frames. Many are visible in the paintings of Giotto.[66] The exact reason for the incorporation of pseudo-Kufic in early Renaissance painting is unclear. It seems that Westerners mistakenly associated 13th- and 14th-century Middle-Eastern scripts as being identical with the scripts current during Jesus's time, and thus found natural to represent early Christians in association with them:[67] "In Renaissance art, pseudo-Kufic script was used to decorate the costumes of Old Testament heroes like David".[68] Another reason might be that artist wished to express a cultural universality for the Christian faith, by blending together various written languages, at a time when the church had strong international ambitions.[69]

Carpets

Main article: Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting
The Somerset House Conference (1604) artist unknown, shows English and Spanish diplomats gathered around a table covered by an Oriental carpet.

paintings from the 13th century and continuing into the Baroque period. Such carpets, together with Pseudo-Kufic script offer an interesting example of the integration of Eastern elements into European painting, most particularly those depicting religious subjects.[70]

Music

Main articles:
Andalusian classical music

A number of musical instruments used in European music were influenced by Arabic musical instruments, including the rebec (an ancestor of the violin) from the rebab and the naker from naqareh[71] The oud is cited as one of several precursors to the modern guitar.[72]

Alfonso X

Some scholars believe that the

William IX of Aquitaine were in some form of Arabic, indicating a potential Andalusian origin for his works. The scholars attempted to translate the lines in question and produced various different translations; the medievalist Istvan Frank contended that the lines were not Arabic at all, but instead the result of the rewriting of the original by a later scribe.[74]

The theory that the troubadour tradition was created by William after his experiences with

Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain has been championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal and Idries Shah, though George T. Beech states that there is only one documented battle that William fought in Spain, and it occurred towards the end of his life. However, Beech adds that William and his father did have Spanish individuals within their extended family, and that while there is no evidence he himself knew Arabic, he may have been friendly with some European Christians who could speak the language.[74] Others state that the notion that William created the concept of troubadours is itself incorrect, and that his "songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition."[75]

Technology

See also:
Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers
Syrian or Egyptian pieces of Islamic glass with Arabic inscriptions, excavated in London. Museum of London.
Andalusian dish with pseudo-Arabic script around the edge, excavated in London. Museum of London
.

A number of

astronomical sextant; various surgical instruments, including refinements on older forms and completely new inventions;[58] and advanced gearing in waterclocks and automata.[79] Distillation was known to the Greeks and Romans, but was rediscovered in medieval Europe through the Arabs.[80] The word alcohol (to describe the liquid produced by distillation) comes from Arabic al-kuhl.[81] The word alembic (via the Greek Ambix) comes from Arabic al-anbiq.[82] Islamic examples of complex water clocks and automata are believed to have strongly influenced the European craftsmen who produced the first mechanical clocks in the 13th century.[83]

The importation of both the ancient and new technology from the Middle East and the Orient to Renaissance Europe represented “one of the largest technology transfers in world history.”[84]

The Aldrevandini Beaker, enamelled glass from Venice, a Roman technique probably learned from Islamic glass. c. 1330.[85]

In an influential 1974 paper, historian Andrew Watson suggested that there had been an

crops and technologies from Spain into medieval Europe, where farming was mostly restricted to wheat strains obtained much earlier via central Asia. Watson listed eighteen crops, including sorghum from Africa, citrus fruits from China, and numerous crops from India such as mangos, rice, cotton and sugar cane, which were distributed throughout Islamic lands that, according to Watson, had previously not grown them. Watson argued that these introductions, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture, led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking, diet and clothing in the Islamic world. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and esparto grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles.[76] However Michael Decker has challenged significant parts of Watson's thesis, including whether all these crops were introduced to Europe during this period. Decker used literary and archaeological evidence to suggest that four of the listed crops (i.e. durum wheat, Asiatic rice, sorghum and cotton) were common centuries before the Islamic period, that the crops which were new were not as important as Watson had suggested, and generally arguing that Islamic agricultural practices in areas such as irrigation were more of an evolution from those of the ancient world than the revolution suggested by Watson.[86]

The production of

sugar cane,[87] water clocks, pulp and paper, silk, and various advances in making perfume, were transferred from the Islamic world to medieval Europe.[88] Fulling mills and advances in mill technology may have also been transmitted from the Islamic world to medieval Europe,[89] along with the large-scale use of inventions like the suction pump,[90] noria and chain pumps for irrigation purposes. According to Watson, "The Islamic contribution was less in the invention of new devices than in the application on a much wider scale of devices which in pre-Islamic times had been used only over limited areas and to a limited extent."[91] These innovations made it possible for some industrial operations that were previously served by manual labour or draught animals to be driven by machinery in medieval Europe.[92]

The spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by 1030. It later spread to China by 1090, and then spread from the Islamic world to Europe and India by the 13th century.[93] The spinning wheel was fundamental to the cotton textile industry prior to the Industrial Revolution. It was a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was widely used during the Industrial Revolution. The spinning jenny was essentially an adaptation of the spinning wheel.[94]

Coinage

Tarì gold coin of Roger II of Sicily, with Arabic inscriptions, minted in Palermo. British Museum.

While the earliest coins were minted and widely circulated in Europe, and Ancient Rome, Islamic coinage had some influence on Medieval European minting. The 8th-century English king Offa of Mercia minted a near-copy of Abbasid dinars struck in 774 by Caliph Al-Mansur with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse.[95] The moneyer visibly had little understanding of Arabic, as the Arabic text contains a number of errors.

A gold dinar of the English king Offa of Mercia, a copy of the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774). It combines the Latin legend OFFA REX with Arabic legends. British Museum.[96]
Papal complaints. British Museum
.

In Sicily, Malta and Southern Italy from about 913 tarì gold coins of Islamic origin were minted in great number by the Normans, Hohenstaufens and the early Angevins rulers.[97] When the Normans invaded Sicily in the 12th century, they issued tarì coins bearing legends in Arabic and Latin.[98] The tarìs were so widespread that imitations were made in southern Italy (Amalfi and Salerno) which only used illegible "pseudo-Kufic" imitations of Arabic.[99][100]

According to Janet Abu-Lughod:

The preferred specie for international transactions before the 13th century, in Europe as well as the Middle East and even India, were the gold coins struck by Byzantium and then Egypt. It was not until after the 13th century that some Italian cities (Florence and Genoa) began to mint their own gold coins, but these were used to supplement rather than supplant the Middle Eastern coins already in circulation.[101]

Literature

Further information: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, and Persian literature

It was first suggested by

Liber scalae Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder". Dante was certainly aware of Muslim philosophy, naming Avicenna and Averroes last in his list of non-Christian philosophers in Limbo, alongside the great Greek and Latin philosophers.[103][104] How strong the similarities are to Kitab al-Miraj remains a matter of scholarly debate however, with no clear evidence that Dante was in fact influenced.[citation needed
]

See also

Notes

References

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  100. ISBN 978-0-521-58231-5 [3]
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  101. ISBN 0-19-506774-6
    p.15
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  103. ^ "Paul A. (Paul Arthur) Cantor - The Uncanonical Dante: The Divine Comedy and Islamic Philosophy - Philosophy and Literature 20:1". www.muslimphilosophy.com. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
  104. ^ Alighieri, Dante. "The Divine Comedy". Retrieved 8 April 2018 – via Wikisource.

Sources

External links
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