Islamofascism
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"Islamofascism",
History and concept
Background and origins
The term "Islamofascism" is defined in the New Oxford American Dictionary as "a term equating some modern Islamic movements with the European fascist movements of the early twentieth century".[3]
The earliest known use of the contiguous term Islamic Fascism dates to 1933 when Akhtar Husain, in an attack on Muhammad Iqbal, defined attempts to secure the independence of Pakistan as a form of Islamic fascism.[4] Some analysts consider Manfred Halpern's use of the phrase 'neo-Islamic totalitarianism' in his 1963 book The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa, as a precursor to the concept of Islamofascism, in that he discusses Islamism as a new kind of fascism.[5] Halpern's primary case was based on an analysis of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, and he argued that such Islamic movements were an obstacle to the military regimes who were in his view representatives of a new middle class capable of modernizing the Middle East.[6][7] Halpern's work, commissioned by the United States Air Force from the RAND Corporation, arguably represents a mix of mid-Cold War analysis and orientalism.[8]
In 1978,
The earliest example of the term "Islamofascism", according to William Safire,[10] occurs in an article penned by the Scottish scholar and writer Malise Ruthven writing in 1990. Ruthven used it to refer to the way in which traditional Arab dictatorships used religious appeals in order to stay in power.[11][12][13] "Nevertheless there is what might be called a political problem affecting the Muslim world. In contrast to the heirs of some other non-Western traditions, including Hinduism, Shintoism and Buddhism, Islamic societies seem to have found it particularly hard to institutionalise divergences politically: authoritarian government, not to say Islamo-fascism, is the rule rather than the exception from Morocco to Pakistan."[14] Ruthven doubts that he himself coined the term, stating that the attribution to him is probably due to the fact that internet search engines do not go back beyond 1990.[15]
After nationalizing the Suez Canal, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser was called "Hitler on the Nile" by the West.[16]
Young Egyptian Party
The
Popularisation after 2001
As a
Accounts differ as to who popularized the term.
Islamist perspective on fascism
Hassan al-Banna on nationalism
Hassan al-Banna, the founder of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood, wrote extensively on nationalism, militarism, and Islam. In his book, Peace in Islam, he criticizes fascism, saying:
Nazism came to power in Germany, Fascism in Italy and both Hitler and Mussolini began to force their people to conform to what they thought; unity, order, development, and power. Certainly, this system led the two countries to stability and a vital international role. This cultivated much hope, reawakened aspiration, and united the whole country under one leader. Then what happened? It became apparent that these seemingly powerful systems were a real disaster. The inspiration and aspirations of the people were shattered and the system of democracy did not lead to the empowerment of the people but to the establishment of chosen tyrants. Eventually after a deadly war in which innumerable men women and children died, these regimes collapsed. [1]
He also denounced militarism, citing Quran 8:61 "If the enemy is inclined towards peace, make peace with them".[38][39] When it comes to nationalism, he praises the "Nationalism of Glory", the "Nationalism of Political Community", and the "Nationalism of Discipline", while denouncing the "Nationailsm of Paganism" and "Nationalism of Aggression".[40]
If what is meant by "nationalism" is racial self-aggrandizement to a degree that leads to the disparagement of other races, aggression against them, and their victimization for the sake of the nation's glory and its continued existence, as preached for example by Germany and Italy; nay more. as claimed by every nation that preaches its superiority over all others - then this too is a reprehensible idea. It has no share in humanitarianism and means that the human race will liquidate itself for the sake of a delusion with no basis in fact and embodying not the slightest good.[40]
According to the historian Israel Gershoni, "fascist" is an incomplete view of the Muslim Brotherhood, since it fails to understand the uniquely Muslim nature of the movement, whose primary goal was Islamic revitalism and authenticity.[41]
Contrary to contemporary nationalist movements in Egypt, such as Pharaonism and Pan-Arabism, the Muslim Brotherhood preferred Pan-Islamism, as Islam is viewed as "above" worldy ideas such as race. For example, former Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohammed Akef said "to hell with Egypt", which lead to an outcry among Egyptian nationalists.[42]
Ayatollah Khomeini on fascism
Impact of Julius Evola on Islamism
Julius Evola was an Italian philosopher and fascist writer. He wrote many books and articles on tradtition and modernity, supporting reactionary and traditionalist ideas. In Metaphysics of War, Evola comments on the philosophy of war in the Hindu, Islamic and Western traditions, describing the idea of jihad in Islam.[46][47] In Evola's description of Islam, he praises it's traditional morality and clear social roles.[48] Evola characterized Islam as “a tradition at a higher level both Judaism and the religious beliefs that conquered the West.”[49] Evola's esotericist beliefs and praise of Islam have led Frank Gelli to accuse him of being a crypto-Sufi.[50][51] Evola has been cited as an influence of the Russian Islamic activist Geydar Dzhemal.[52]
In Revolt Against the Modern World, Evola writes
"As in the case of priestly Judaism, the center in Islam also consisted of the Law and Tradition, regarded as a formative force, to which the Arab stocks of the origins provided a purer and nobler human material that was shaped by a warrior spirit"[53]
Evola predicted a resurgence in Islam following the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, saying:
The Arabs are a great people, too, of course. Now they are in the dumps. Arab socialism does not suit them. It has sapped their energies. You can't mix atheism, Marxism and the Qur’an. The Arabs already have their own prophet in Muhammad. They'll never exchange Muhammad for Marx...Besides, Nasser has shown himself to be a dud. He deserved defeat. Arab socialism will die with him. There will soon be a resurgence of Islam. That is certain. Islam's worldwide advance has not stopped yet... When the time comes – I am sure it will be soon - they can restore the Caliphate. When the Islamic awakening comes, the Arabs will bounce back but not before.[50]
The terrorist Fouad Ali Saleh cited Evola during his trial, reading passages from Revolt Against the Modern World.[54]
Islamo-Fascism Awareness Week
Journalistic analysis
Schwartz's approach argues that several factors buttressed his notion of a similarity between fascism and Islamic fundamentalist terror:
- Resentment by an economically frustrated middle class as feeding the rage that led to fascism, something that fitted Shia in Lebanon;
- Most forms of Fascism to date have been imperialistic, as are, he claimed, Wahhabisand Hezbollah;
- It was ;
- Both have Christian extremism which led to clerical fascism.[59]
Although he prefers to speak of "fascism with an Islamic face", a variation on the phrase "Islam with a fascist face" deployed by
The American journalist and former Nixon speechwriter William Safire wrote that the term fulfilled a need for a term to distinguish traditional Islam from terrorists: "Islamofascism may have legs: the compound defines those terrorists who profess a religious mission while embracing totalitarian methods and helps separate them from devout Muslims who want no part of terrorist means."[10] Eric Margolis denied any resemblance between anything in the Muslim world, with its local loyalties and consensus decision-making and the historic, corporative-industrial states of the West. "The Muslim World", he argued, "is replete with brutal dictatorships, feudal monarchies, and corrupt military-run states, but none of these regimes, however deplorable, fits the standard definition of fascism. Most, in fact, are America's allies."[63]
Malise Ruthven opposed redefining Islamism as "Islamofascism," a term whose usage has been "much abused".[15] The Islamic label can be used for legitimizing and labeling a movement, but ideology must be distinguished from the brand name associated with it. The difference between Islamic movements and fascism are more "compelling" than the analogies. Islam defies doctrinal unification.[64][65] No particular order of government can be deduced from Islamic texts, any more than from Christianity. Spanish fascists drew support from traditional Catholic doctrines, but by the same token, other Catholic thinkers have defended democracy in terms of the same theological traditions.[66]
Scholarly analysis
The widespread use in mass media of the term "Islamofascism" has been challenged as confusing because of its conceptual fuzziness.
Walter Laqueur, after reviewing this and related terms, concluded that "Islamic fascism, Islamophobia and antisemitism, each in its way, are imprecise terms we could well do without but it is doubtful whether they can be removed from our political lexicon."[73]
Support
Manfred Halpern, the first major thinker to characterize politicized Islam as a fascist movement, called it "Neo-Islamic Totalitarianism" in his classic 1963 study The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa.[74][75][5]
The French Marxist Maxime Rodinson described Islamic movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood as a "type of archaic fascism" whose goal was the establishment of a "totalitarian state whose political police would brutally enforce the moral and social order."[5] He accused the French left of celebrating in Islamism a religious form of fascism.[5]
Professor David Meir-Levi wrote in his book
The sociologist Saïd Amir Arjomand has argued since 1984 that Islamism and fascism share essential features, an argument he made at some length in his 1989 book The Turban for the Crown; The Islamic revolution in Iran.[5]
American scholar Michael Howard has defended usage of the term, drawing parallels between Wahhabism and fascist ideologies in Europe.[78] Howard has stated that he was initially "deeply opposed" to Bush's idea of a global "war on terror": it was not a war in his view, except metaphorically, and according to Howard, it is possible[spelling?] to wage war against an abstract concept such as terror. He further noted that giving one's adversary a belligerent status by reciprocating their idea that they are engaged in a war, as opposed to a confrontation where the question was one of "criminal disruption of civil order," would only increase their support among the civilian population.[78] Despite this, Howard endorsed Bush's description of the adversary as "Islamic fascists", though he qualified this by stating that "although they are no more typical of their religion than the fanatics who have committed abominations in the name of Christianity", and their teachings are as much derived from Western notions as from Islamic schools of thought.[79] Fascism is, for Howard, "the rejection of the entire legacy of the Enlightenment" with its values of "reason, toleration, open-ended inquiry and the rule of law".[78]
Criticism
The term "Islamofascism" has been criticized by several scholars.[80] While Islamic Fascism has been discussed as a category of serious analysis by the scholars mentioned above, the term "Islamofascism" circulated mainly as a propaganda, rather than as an analytic, term after the September 11 attacks on the United States in September 2001[81] but also gained a foothold in more sober political discourse,[82] both academic and pseudo-academic.[83] Many critics are dismissive, variously branding it as "meaningless" (Daniel Benjamin);[84][85] a "figment of the neocon imagination" (Paul Krugman);[86] and as betraying an ignorance of both Islam and Fascism (Angelo Codevilla).[87]
In 2012 a special issue of Die Welt des Islams was dedicated to surveying the issue of Islamophobia in recent Western reportage and scholarly studies, with essays on various facets of the controversy by Katajun Amirpur, Moshe Zuckerman, René Wildangel, Joachim Scholtyseck and others. Their positions were almost invariably critical of the term and the concept underlying it.
See also
- Amin al-Husseini
- Golden Square
- Anti-Masonry
- Clerical fascism
- Davud Monshizadeh
- Islamic extremism
- Islamic fundamentalism
- Islamism
- Islamophobia
- Islamic religious police
- Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
- Jihad
- Khomeinism
- Muhammad Najati Sidqi
- Muslim Patrol incident
- Nazi SS Division Handschar (Bosnian Muslims)
- Nazi SS Division Skanderbeg (Muslim Albanians)
- Nazi SS Division Kama (Bosnian Muslims)
- Qutbism
- Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world
- Sharia
- SUMKA
- Talibanization
- Takfiri
- Worldwide caliphate
- Wahhabi movement
- Deobandi movement
- The Enemy of My Enemy
- David Myatt
- Johann von Leers
- Francois Genoud
Citations
- ^ Zuckerman 2012, p. 353.
- ^ Falk 2008, p. 122.
- ^ a b Falk 2008, p. 122
- ^ a b Görlach 2011, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d e Kramer 2016, p. 72
- ^ Bonney 2008, p. 3
- ^ Lee 2010, pp. 50–51
- ^ Volpi 2009, pp. 22f.
- ^ Afary & Anderson 2010, pp. 99–103. Maxime Rodinson, 'The Awakening of Islamic Fundamentalism ("Intégrisme")?' Le Monde 6 December 1978
- ^ a b Safire 2006
- ^ Hitchens 2007
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (22 October 2007). "Defending Islamofascism". Slate Magazine.
- ^ Malise Ruthven, Construing Islam as a Language, The Independent 8 September 1990.
- ^ Görlach 2011, p. 151.
- ^ a b Ruthven 2012, p. x.
- ISBN 978-1-4411-9165-6, retrieved 2023-10-10
- ^ "Sign in with your UT EID - Stale Request". enterprise.login.utexas.edu.
- ^ Sayyid Qutb: The Life and Legacy of a Radical Islamic Intellectual
- ^ The Crisis of Citizenship in the Arab World
- ^ Halliday 2010, pp. 185–187, p.185.
- ^ Scardino 2005
- ^ a b Editorial 2006
- ^ Schwartz 2001: The Islamofascist ideology of Osama bin Laden and those closest to him, such as the Egyptian and Algerian 'Islamic Groups', is no more intrinsically linked to Islam or Islamic civilisation than Pearl Harbor was to Buddhism, or Ulster terrorists — whatever they may profess — are to Christianity. Serious Christians don't go around killing and maiming the innocent; devout Muslims do not prepare for paradise by hanging out in strip bars and getting drunk, as one of last week's terrorist pilots was reported to have done
- ^ a b c Stolberg 2006.
- Jama'atis, and the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. In the ranks of Shia Muslims, it is exemplified by Hezbollahin Lebanon and the clique around President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in Iran."
- ^ Webster, Richard (2002). "Israel,Palestine and the tiger of terrorism: anti-semitism and history". richardwebster.net. Archived from the original on April 17, 2003. Retrieved 2018-05-28.
Those on the right who have taken up the chant of 'Islamofascism' repeatedly enjoin us to 'forget the root causes'.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Bush 2005:'Some call this evil Islamic radicalism. Others militant jihadism.BUSH: Still, others Islamo-fascism'.
- ^ Wildangel 2012, p. 527.
- ^ a b d'Annibale 2011, p. 118
- ^ Podhoretz 2008, p. 43
- ^ a b c Wolffe 2006
- ^ a b Pollitt 2006.
- ^ Raum 2006:'Conservative commentators have long talked about "Islamo-fascism," and Bush's phrase was a slightly toned-down variation on that theme.’
- ^ a b Raum 2006
- ^ Raum 2006:
- ^ Falk 2008, pp. 122–123
- ^ a b c d Hitchens 2007.
- ^ "Surah Al-Anfal - 61". Quran.com. Retrieved 2023-08-27.
- ^ "Messages of Hassan al-Banna" (PDF). p. 186.
- ^ a b "The Messages of Hassan Al-Banna" (PDF). pp. 93–96.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-6343-1.
Yet in our view, "fascist" is an inadequate descriptor for the Muslim Brothers, a misleading characterization that obscures rather than clarifies its complex character and fails to account for its phenomenal appeal. In particular, the designation fails to allow for the uniquely Muslim nature of the movement. The essence of the Muslim Brothers was a tireless striving for Islamic authenticity.
- ^ "A 'Yes' for Egypt's Future". Brookings. Retrieved 2023-08-27.
- ISBN 978-0-933782-04-4.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Khomeini, Ruhollah. "کشف الاسرار" (PDF). p. 222. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-11-09.
- ISBN 978-1-907166-36-5.
- ^ Cabrini, Luciano (2009). "Janua Coeli: Islam and Evola". Janua Coeli. Retrieved 2023-08-30.
- ^ "Evola's Thoughts on Islam". Islam for Europeans. 2018-09-30. Retrieved 2023-08-30.
- ^ "Islam and Tradition: Evola's Thoughts on Islam – Initium, or how I learned to love the Kali-Yuga". 2011-05-09. Retrieved 2023-08-30.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-6912-5642-6.
- ^ Cologero (2012-06-11). "Evola: The Second Rumi?". Gornahoor. Retrieved 2023-08-30.
- ^ Arnold, Jafe. "From Traditionalism and Sufism to "Islamic Radicalism": The Peculiar Case of Geydar Dzhemal (1947-2016)".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-0-89281-506-7.
- S2CID 154152742.
- ^ Aked, H.; Jones, M.; Miller, D. (2019). "Islamophobia in Europe: How governments are enabling the far-right 'counter-jihad' movement". Public Interest Investigations: 14.
- ^ Associated Press 2008
- ^ Podhoretz 2008, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Krugman 2007.
- ^ Schwartz 2001:
- ^ Halliday 2010, p. 185.
- ^ Laqueur 1996, pp. 147ff..
- ^ Stolberg 2006."I'd prefer to call them Islamists," said Frederick W. Kagan, a military historian and neoconservative thinker at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington. Fascists, Mr. Kagan said, idealize a strong man, like Hitler or Mussolini. "Bin Laden's stated aim is for Allah to be venerated, so I think it's a very different thing."
- ^ Margolis 2006.
- ^ Ruthven 2002, pp. 207–8.
- ^ Ruthven 2012, p. x.
- ^ Ruthven 2012, p. 31.
- ^ Orwell 2013, p. 10.
- ^ Halliday 2010, p. 187.
- ^ Mallat 2015, p. 155, n.5
- ^ Onfray 2007, p. 206:"the overthrow of the Shah ... gave birth to an authentic Muslim fascism": "the Iranian Revolution gave birth to an Islamic fascism never before associated with that religion".
- ^ Aslan 2010, pp. 25–6:"It has more in common with the Bolsheviks and the French revolutionaries than it does with militant Muslim nationalist groups such as Hamas and Hizballah. To talk about Jihadism as Islamofascism is to misunderstand both Jihadism and fascism. Fascism is an ideology of ultranationalism; Jihadism rejects the very concept of the nation-state as anathema to Islam. In that regard, Jihadism is the opposite of Islamism" ... "What was for centuries considered a collective duty waged predominantly within the confines of an empire or state and solely in defense of life, faith, and property ... has, in Jihadism, become a radically individualistic obligation utterly divorced from any institutional power."
- ^ Ferguson 2006.
- ^ Laqueur 2006.
- ^ Halpern 1963
- ^ MacDonald 2009, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Meir-Levi, David. History Upside Down: The Roots of Palestinian Fascism and the Myth of Israeli Aggression. Encounter Books. p. 36.
- ^ Meir-Levi, David. History Upside Down: The Roots of Palestinian Fascism and the Myth of Israeli Aggression. Encounter Books. p. 102.
- ^ a b c Howard 2006–2007, pp. 7–14.
- ^ Howard 2006–2007, p. 9.
- ^ Boyle, Michael, 'The War on Terror in American Grand Strategy', International Affairs, 84, (March 2008), p196
- ^ Wildangel 2012, p. 526
- ^ Zuckerman 2012, pp. 353–354.
- ^ Gershoni 2012, p. 472.
- ^ Greene 2006:'Security expert Daniel Benjamin of the Center for Strategic and International Studies agreed that the term was meaningless. "There is no sense in which jihadists embrace fascist ideology as it was developed by Mussolini or anyone else who was associated with the term," he said. "This is an epithet, a way of arousing strong emotion and tarnishing one's opponent, but it doesn't tell us anything about the content of their beliefs. "The people who are trying to kill us, Sunni jihadist terrorists, are a very, very different breed.".'
- ^ Larison 2007 "The word 'Islamofascism' never had any meaning, except as a catch-all for whatever regimes and groups the word's users wished to make targets for military action. Hitchens is also well known for his tendentious misunderstandings of all forms of religion, likening theism to a supernatural totalitarian regime and attributing all of the crimes of political totalitarianism to religion. It was therefore appropriate that he should promote the term 'Islamofascism' since it defines a religious movement in the language of secular totalitarianism."
- ^ Krugman 2007:' there isn't actually any such thing as Islamofascism — it's not an ideology; it's a figment of the neocon imagination. The term came into vogue only because it was a way for Iraq hawks to gloss over the awkward transition from pursuing Osama bin Laden, who attacked America, to Saddam Hussein, who didn't.'
- ^ Codevilla 2009, p. 25
- ^ Ferguson 2006:'what we see at the moment is an attempt to interpret our present predicament in a rather caricatured World War II idiom. I mean, 'Islamofascism' illustrates the point well, ... It's just a way of making us feel that we're the "greatest generation" fighting another World War, like the war our fathers and grandfathers fought. You're translating a crisis symbolized by 9/11 into a sort of pseudo World War II. So, 9/11 becomes Pearl Harbor and then you go after the bad guys who are the fascists, and if you don't support us, then you must be an appeaser.'
- ^ Judt 2014, p. 386
- ^ Judt 2006.
References
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- Associated Press (24 April 2008). "'Jihadist' booted from US government lexicon". Ynet.
- ISBN 978-1-906-16507-9.
- Boyle, Michael J. (March 2008). "The War on Terror in American Grand Strategy". .
- Washington Post.
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- d'Annibale, Valerie Scatamburlo (2011). Cold Breezes and Idiot Winds: Patriotic Correctness and the Post-9/11 Assault on Academe. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789460914096.
- Editorial (1 September 2006). "Islamofascism by any other name war". The Washington Post.
- ISBN 9780313357640.
- Ferguson, Niall (2006). Kreisler, Harry (ed.). "The War of the World:Conversation with Niall Ferguson". Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley. Archived from the original on 2020-11-27. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
- Flores, Alexander (2012). "The Arabs as Nazis? Some Reflections on "Islamofascism" and Arab Anti-Semitism". .
- Gershoni, Israel (2012). "Why the Muslims Must Fight against Nazi Germany:Muḥammad Najātī Ṣidqī's plea". .
- Greene, Richard Allen (12 August 2006). "Bush's language angers US Muslims". BBC News.
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- Görlach, Joseph-Simon (2011). "Western Representastions of Fascist Influences on Islamist Thought". In Feuchter, Jörg; Hoffmann, Friedhelm; Yun, Bee (eds.). Cultural Transfers in Dispute: Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages. Campus Verlag. pp. 149–165. ISBN 9783593394046.
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- Halpern, Manfred (1963). The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa. Princeton University Press.
- Herf, Jeffrey (8 April 2010). "Killing in the Name". The New Republic.
- Hitchens, Christopher (27 October 2007). "Defending Islamofascism: It's a valid term. Here's why". Slate.
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- The London Review of Books. pp. 3–5.
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- Krugman, Paul (29 October 2007). "Fearing Fear Itself". The New York Times.
- Landgrebe, Phillip: Arabische Muslim_innen und der Nationalsozialismus und die Bestände des International Tracing Service (ITS). In: Lernen aus der Geschichte, 31 July 2017 [in German].
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- Laqueur, Walter (25 October 2006). "The Origins of Fascism: Islamic Fascism, Islamophobia, Antisemitism". OUP blog.
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- MacDonald, David Bruce (2009). Thinking History, Fighting Evil: Neoconservatives and the Perils of Analogy in American Politics. ISBN 978-0-739-12503-8.
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- Margolis, Eric S. (3 September 2006). "The big lie". Khaleej Times. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
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- Safire, William (1 October 2006). "Islamofascism". The New York Times.
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- Schwartz, Stephen (16 August 2006). "What Is 'Islamofascism'?". TCS Daily. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012.)
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link - Stolberg, Sheryl Gay (24 September 2006). "Islamo-Fascism' Had Its Moment". New York Times.
- Volpi, Frédéric (2009). "Political Islam in the Mediterranean: the view from democratization studies" (PDF). S2CID 145458193. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-12-25. Retrieved 2016-12-25.
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Further reading
- ISBN 978-163-388-124-2).
- Bar-On, Tamir (2018). "'Islamofascism': Four Competing Discourses on the Islamism-Fascism Comparison". Fascism. 7 (2): 241–274. ISSN 2211-6257.
- Tibi, Bassam. From Sayyid Qutb to Hamas, The Middle-East Conflict and the Islamization of Antisemtism, in Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism, online working paper, 2010
- Daily Star (Lebanon), August 19, 2006
External links
- The dictionary definition of islamofascism at Wiktionary