Issues relating to biofuels
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Issues relating to biofuel are social, economic, environmental and technical problems that may arise from
The International Resource Panel outlined the wider and interrelated factors that need to be considered when deciding on the relative merits of pursuing one biofuel over another.[1] The IRP concluded that not all biofuels perform equally in terms of their effect on climate, energy security and ecosystems, and suggested that environmental and social effects need to be assessed throughout the entire life-cycle.
Social and economic effects
Oil price moderation
The International Energy Agency's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising oil demand, if left unchecked, would accentuate the consuming countries' vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting price shock. The report suggested that biofuels may one day offer a viable alternative, but also that "the implications of the use of biofuels for global security as well as for economic, environmental, and public health need to be further evaluated".[2]
According to Francisco Blanch, a commodity strategist for
"Food vs. fuel" debate
Food vs fuel is the debate regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production in detriment of the
Poverty reduction
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have argued that biofuels could help to reduce poverty in the developing world, through increased employment, wider economic growth multipliers and by stabilising oil prices (many developing countries are net importers of oil).[13] However, this potential is described as 'fragile', and is reduced where feedstock production tends to be large scale, or causes pressure on limited agricultural resources: capital investment, land, water, and the net cost of food for the poor.
With regards to the potential for poverty reduction or exacerbation, biofuels rely on many of the same policy, regulatory or investment shortcomings that impede agriculture as a route to poverty reduction. Since many of these shortcomings require policy improvements at a country level rather than a global one, they argue for a country-by-country analysis of the potential poverty effects of biofuels. This would consider, among other things, land administration systems, market coordination and prioritizing investment in biodiesel, as this 'generates more labour, has lower transportation costs and uses simpler technology'.[14] Also necessary are reductions in the tariffs on biofuel imports regardless of the country of origin, especially due to the increased efficiency of biofuel production in countries such as Brazil.[13]
Sustainable biofuel production
Responsible policies and economic instruments would help to ensure that biofuel commercialization, including the development of new
Environmental effects
Soil erosion and deforestation
Large-scale
A portion of the biomass should be retained onsite to support the soil resource. Normally this will be in the form of raw biomass, but processed biomass is also an option. If the exported biomass is used to produce syngas, the process can be used to co-produce biochar, a low-temperature charcoal used as a soil amendment to increase soil organic matter to a degree not practical with less recalcitrant forms of organic carbon. For co-production of biochar to be widely adopted, the soil amendment and carbon sequestration value of co-produced charcoal must exceed its net value as a source of energy.[19]
Some commentators claim that removal of additional cellulosic biomass for biofuel production will further deplete soils.[20]
Effect on water resources
Increased use of biofuels puts increasing pressure on water resources in at least two ways: water use for the irrigation of crops used as feedstocks for biodiesel production; and water use in the production of biofuels in refineries, mostly for boiling and cooling.
In many parts of the world supplemental or full irrigation is needed to grow feedstocks. For example, if in the production of corn (maize) half the water needs of crops are met through irrigation and the other half through rainfall, about 860 liters of water are needed to produce one liter of ethanol.[21] However, in the United States only 5-15% of the water required for corn comes from irrigation while the other 85-95% comes from natural rainfall.
In the United States, the number of ethanol factories has almost tripled from 50 in 2000 to about 140 in 2008. A further 60 or so are under construction, and many more are planned. Projects are being challenged by residents at courts in Missouri (where water is drawn from the Ozark Aquifer), Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas (all of which draw water from the non-renewable Ogallala Aquifer), central Illinois (where water is drawn from the Mahomet Aquifer) and Minnesota.[22]
For example, the four ethanol crops: corn, sugarcane, sweet sorghum and pine yield net energy. However, increasing production in order to meet the U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act mandates for renewable fuels by 2022 would take a heavy toll in the states of Florida and Georgia. The sweet sorghum, which performed the best of the four, would increase the amount of freshwater withdrawals from the two states by almost 25%.[23]
Pollution
Many aldehydes are toxic to living cells. Formaldehyde irreversibly cross-links
The
Brazil burns significant amounts of ethanol biofuel. Gas
Technical issues
Energy efficiency and energy balance
Despite its occasional proclamation as a "green" fuel, first-generation biofuels, primarily ethanol, are not without their own GHG emissions. While ethanol does produce fewer overall GHG emissions than gasoline, its production is still an energy intensive process with secondary effects. Gasoline generally produces 8.91 kg CO2 per gallon, compared to 8.02 kg CO2 per gallon for E10 ethanol and 1.34 kg CO2 per gallon for E85 ethanol. Based on a study by Dias de Oliveira et al. (2005), corn-based ethanol requires 65.02 gigajoules (GJ) of energy per hectare (ha) and produces approximately 1236.72 kg per ha of carbon dioxide (CO2), while sugar cane-based ethanol requires 42.43 GJ/ha and produces 2268.26 kg/ha of CO2 under the assumption of non-carbon neutral energy production. These emissions accrue from agricultural production, crop cultivation, and ethanol processing. Once the ethanol is blended with gasoline, it results in carbon-savings of approximately 0.89 kg of CO2 per gallon consumed (U.S. D.O.E., 2011a).[29]
Economic viability
From a production standpoint, miscanthus can produce 742 gallons of ethanol per acre of land, which is nearly twice as much as corn (399 gal/acre, assuming average yield of 145 bushels per acre under normal corn-soybean rotation) and nearly three times as much as corn stover (165 gal/acre) and switchgrass (214 gal/acre). Production costs are a big impediment to large-scale implementation of 2nd Generation bio-fuels, and their market demand will depend primarily on their price competitiveness relative to corn ethanol and gasoline. At this time, costs of conversion of cellulosic fuels, at $1.46 per gallon, were roughly twice that of corn-based ethanol, at $0.78 per gallon. Cellulosic biofuels from corn stover and miscanthus were 24% and 29% more expensive than corn ethanol, respectively, and switchgrass biofuel is more than twice as expensive as corn ethanol.
Description (CASE) ('000 US$) | Developed Nation (2G) CASE A | Developing Nation (2G) CASE B | Developed Nation (1G) CASE C | Developing Nation (1G) CASE D |
Operating Profit | 209,313 | -1,176,017 | 166,952 | -91,300 |
Net Present Value | 100,690 | -1,011,217 | 40,982 | 39,224 |
Return on Investment | 1.41 | 0.32 | 1.17 | 0.73 |
Carbon emissions
Biofuels and other forms of
The carbon emissions (
A paper published in February 2008 in
The Searchinger and Fargione studies gained prominent attention in both the
Engine design
The modifications necessary to run internal combustion engines on biofuel depend on the type of biofuel used, as well as the type of engine used. For example, gasoline engines can run without any modification at all on
Campaigns
A number of environmental NGOs campaign against the production of biofuels as a large-scale alternative to fossil fuels. For example,
As a result, governmental[60] and environmental organizations are turning against biofuels made in a non-sustainable way (hereby preferring certain oil sources as jatropha and lignocellulose over palm oil)[61] and are asking for global support for this.[62][63] Also, besides supporting these more sustainable biofuels, environmental organizations are redirecting to new technologies that do not use internal combustion engines such as hydrogen and compressed air.[64]
Several standard-setting and certification initiatives have been set up on the topic of biofuels. The "Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels" is an international initiative which brings together farmers, companies, governments, non-governmental organizations, and scientists who are interested in the sustainability of biofuels production and distribution. During 2008, the Roundtable is developing a series of principles and criteria for
The increased manufacture of biofuels will require increasing land areas to be used for agriculture. Second and third generation biofuel processes can ease the pressure on land, because they can use waste biomass, and existing (untapped) sources of biomass such as crop residues and potentially even marine algae.
In some regions of the world, a combination of increasing demand for food, and increasing demand for biofuel, is causing deforestation and threats to biodiversity. The best reported example of this is the expansion of oil palm plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia, where rainforest is being destroyed to establish new oil palm plantations. It is an important fact that 90% of the palm oil produced in Malaysia is used by the food industry;[67] therefore biofuels cannot be held solely responsible for this deforestation. There is a pressing need for sustainable palm oil production for the food and fuel industries; palm oil is used in a wide variety of food products. The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels is working to define criteria, standards and processes to promote sustainably produced biofuels.[68] Palm oil is also used in the manufacture of detergents, and in electricity and heat generation both in Asia and around the world (the UK burns palm oil in coal-fired power stations to generate electricity).[citation needed]
Significant area is likely to be dedicated to sugar cane in future years as demand for ethanol increases worldwide. The expansion of sugar cane plantations will place pressure on environmentally sensitive native ecosystems including rainforest in South America.[69] In forest ecosystems, these effects themselves will undermine the climate benefits of alternative fuels, in addition to representing a major threat to global biodiversity.[70]
Although biofuels are generally considered to improve net carbon output, biodiesel and other fuels do produce local air pollution, including nitrogen oxides, the principal cause of smog.[citation needed]
See also
- Agflation
- Environmental impact of aviation
- Social and environmental impact of palm oil
- Environmental issues with energy
- Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels
- List of environmental issues
References
- ^ Towards sustainable production and use of resources: Assessing Biofuels Archived 2016-05-13 at the Portuguese Web Archive, 2009, International Resource Panel, United Nations Environment Programme
- ^ various (2006). World Energy Outlook 2006 (PDF). IEA. p. 596.
- ^ "As Biofuels Catch On, Next Task Is to Deal With Environmental, Economic Impact". Archived from the original on 2011-07-25. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
- ^ a b Quaiattini, Gordon (April 25, 2008). "Biofuels are part of the solution". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on January 2, 2013. Retrieved October 12, 2012.
- ^ a b The Impact of US Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Price Levels and Volatility Archived 2017-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, By Bruce A. Babcock, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, for ICTSD, Issue Paper No. 35. June 2011.
- ^ "Even the U.N. Hates Ethanol." Wall Street Journal, 14 June 2011, A14.
- ^ "Biofuels are not to blame for high food prices, study finds". Archived from the original on 2009-01-06. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
- ^ Maggie Ayre (2007-10-03). "Will biofuel leave the poor hungry?". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
- ^ Mike Wilson (2008-02-08). "The Biofuel Smear Campaign". Farm Futures. Archived from the original on February 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
- ^ Michael Grundwald (2008-03-27). "The Clean Energy Scam". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on March 30, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
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- ^ Locke, Anna. "A review of the literature on biofuels and food security at a local level" (PDF). London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI).
- ^ a b Leturque, Henri and Wiggins, Steve (2009) Biofuels: Could the South benefit? London: Overseas Development Institute
- ^ Biofuels, Agriculture and Poverty Reduction Overseas Development Institute
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- ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (2007-01-31). "Once a Dream Fuel, Palm Oil May Be an Eco-Nightmare - New York Times". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
- ^ Knudson, Tom (21 January 2009). "The Cost of the Biofuel Boom on Indonesia's Forests". Guardian. London.
- . 1978. This article studies the evidences concerning the process of generation of Terra preta as well as the reasons why its organic matter's and nutrients' retention is so superior to the surrounding soils.
- ^ [2] "Peak Soil: Why cellulosic ethanol, biofuels are unsustainable and a threat to America", by Alice Friedemann, April 2007.
- ^ To calculate this relationship, one has to take into account that irrigated corn needs about 560 cubic meters (2.1m gallons) of water per ton of corn (as quoted in Eco-World. Ed Ring:Is bio-fuel water positive? June 4, 2007 Archived September 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine using estimates from the University of Colorado and UNESCO, as well as a clarification by David Nielsen, Research Agronomist, USDA-ARS, Akron, Colorado, posted on July 19, 2007.) A good ethanol yield is about 480 gallons per acre per year, and a typical corn yield is 5.6 tons per acre per year. Assuming that half the crop water needs can be met through rainfall, this would mean that still 1,570 cubic meter (1.57m liter) - 280 cubic meter of water per ton, multiplied by 5.6 tons per acre - of irrigation water are needed per acre per year to produce 1,817 liter (480 gallons) of ethanol.
- ^ The Economist, March 1, 2008, Ethanol and water: don't mix, p. 36
- ^ Barnett, Cynthia. "Fueling worries: four ethanol crops under consideration in Florida are very thirsty.(NATURAL RESOURCES)." Florida Trend 52.4 (July 2009): 18(1). General OneFile. Gale. BENTLEY UPPER SCHOOL LIBRARY (BAISL). 6 Oct. 2009 http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS
- ^ Issues Associated with the Use of Higher Ethanol Blends (E17-E24)
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-19. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
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- ^ a b c Anthony Gokianluy et al.,. "A Cost And Benefit, Case Study Analysis Of Biofuels Systems". Harvard College Review of Environment and Society. N.p., 2016. Web. 26 Nov. 2016.
- pedology, agronomy, researchers in renewable energies, and representatives for the DOE (Department of Environment), USDA and industry. Aim: to observe the evidences of massive utilization of carbon in history, make a synopsis on present research, and study how carbon-negative energy can be economically deployed today" (See also "Energy and Carbon Symposium". Archived from the originalon 2004-03-13. Retrieved 2008-09-09.)
- ^ Michael Wang. "Updated Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Results of Fuel Ethanol" (PDF). Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-02-15. Retrieved 2009-06-07. Presented at the 15th International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels, San Diego, California.
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- ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7. For more detail see also the Notes 27 and 28 for Chapter 4, pp. 272.
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- ^ Macedo Isaias, M. Lima Verde Leal and J. Azevedo Ramos da Silva (2004). "Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in the production and use of fuel ethanol in Brazil" (PDF). Secretariat of the Environment, Government of the State of São Paulo. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-28. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ^ "Carbon and Sustainability Reporting Within the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation" (PDF). Department of Transport (UK). January 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2008-11-30.This graph assumes that all bioethanols are burnt in their country of origin and that previously existing cropland is used to grow the feedstock.
- ^ "Greenhouse Gas and Energy Life Cycle Assessment of Pine Chemicals Derived from Crude Tall Oil and Their Substitutes". conducted by Franklin Associates, a Division of Eastern Research Group. August 2013. Retrieved 2014-07-03.
- ^ "The Economic Benefits of the Pine Chemicals Industry" (PDF). American Chemistry Council. December 2011. Retrieved 2014-07-03.
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- ^ Alexander E. Farrell (2008-02-13). "Better biofuels before more biofuels". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
- ^ Bryan Walsh (2008-02-14). "The Trouble With Biofuels". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on November 3, 2012. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
- ^ Michael Grunwald (2008-03-27). "The Clean Energy Scam". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on March 30, 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-07. This article was the cover story of the April 7, 2008 print edition entitled "The Clean Energy Myth".
- ^ Joe Jobe (2008-04-10). "The Debate on Clean Energy". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on April 15, 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-07. Reply letter by Joe Jobe, CEO of the National Biodiesel Board published in the "Inbox" section in Time's April 21 issue.
- New York Times. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
- New York Times. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
- Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
- ^ Michael Wang; Zia Haq (2008-03-14). "Letter to Science about Searchinger et al. article" (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-02-15. Retrieved 2009-06-07. The published version on Science Letters is included in Searchinger E-Letter responses 2008-08-12
- ^ Timothy Searchinger (2008-08-12). "E-Letter response to M. Wang and Z. Haq's E-Letter: Ethanol's Effects on Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Science. Retrieved 2009-06-07.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Keith L. Kline; Virginia H. Dale (2008-07-11). "Biofuels: Effects on Land and Fire" (PDF). Letters to Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-04. Retrieved 2009-06-11. This reference also includes Timothy Searching and Joseph Fargione responses to Kline and Dale (Science Vol 321).
- ^ "Statement in Response to Science Articles on Biofuels" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2008. Retrieved 2009-06-11.
- ^ "Friends of the Earth: Fueling or Fooling Europe" (PDF).February 2008 Retrieved November 8, 2008
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- ^ IPCC's Mitigation of Climate Change report negative on biofuels Archived 2008-12-19 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Biofuels no panacea Archived 2008-04-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF).
- ^ Biofuels — Transporting Us to a Fossil-Free Future? Archived 2008-09-15 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Governmental (OECD) organizations against unsustainable biofuels.
- ^ Friends of the Earth, Oxfam, ... preferring jatropha over palm oil.
- ^ Environmental organizations against non-sustainable biofuels 1 Archived 2008-01-19 at archive.today.
- ^ Environmental organizations against non-sustainable biofuels 2 Archived 2008-08-30 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Zero Carbon Environmental Organization Archived 2008-08-20 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels: Ensuring Biofuels Deliver on their Promise of Sustainability
- ^ "A guide to Bonsucro". Bonsucro. Retrieved 2014-08-24.
- ^ Malaysian Palm Oil Council.
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- ^ BBC News.
- ^ Agrofuels — towards a reality check in nine key areas.
External links
- Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels - The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels Announces Version Zero of our Sustainability Standard
- World Bank, Biofuels: The Promise and the Risks. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development
- Biofuels Aren't Really Green - by Deepak Divan, Frank Kreikebaum, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Spectrum, November 2009
- Global Trade and Environmental Impact Study of the EU Biofuels Mandate by the International Food Policy Institute (IFPRI) March 2010