Istanbul

Edit links
Coordinates: 41°00′49″N 28°57′18″E / 41.01361°N 28.95500°E / 41.01361; 28.95500
Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Istanbul (disambiguation).

Istanbul
İstanbul (
.ist, .istanbul
Website
Official nameHistoric Areas of Istanbul
CriteriaCultural: (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)
Reference356bis
Inscription1985 (9th Session)
Extensions2017
Area765.5 ha (1,892 acres)

Istanbul

Bosporus Strait, the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is considered the country's economic, cultural and historic capital. The city has a population of over 15 million residents, comprising 19% of the population of Turkey,[3] and is the most populous city in Europe[c] and the world's sixteenth-largest city
.

The city was founded as

Latin: Nova Roma)[10] and then finally as Constantinople (Constantinopolis) after himself.[10][11] In 1930, the city's name was officially changed to Istanbul, the Turkish rendering of εἰς τὴν Πόλιν eis tḕn Pólin 'to the City', the appellation Greek speakers used since the 11th century to colloquially refer to the city.[10]

The city served as an imperial capital for almost 1600 years: during the Byzantine (330–1204), Latin (1204–1261), late Byzantine (1261–1453), and Ottoman (1453–1922) empires.[12] The city grew in size and influence, eventually becoming a beacon of the Silk Road and one of the most important cities in history. The city played a key role in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, hosting four of the first seven ecumenical councils before its transformation to an Islamic stronghold following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE—especially after becoming the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1517.[13] In 1923, after the Turkish War of Independence, Ankara replaced the city as the capital of the newly formed Republic of Turkey.

Istanbul was the 2010

UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the city hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish companies, accounting for more than thirty percent of the country's economy.[16][17] Istanbul is among the top 100 science and technology clusters in the world.[18] The city hosts a large part of Turkish football and sports in general, with significant clubs like Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş
.

Names

Main article: Names of Istanbul

The first known name of the city is

Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطينيه) and İstanbul were the names used alternatively by the Ottomans during their rule.[21]

The name İstanbul (

Ottoman Turkish: اسلامبول) on coinage was in 1730 during the reign of Sultan Mahmud I.[24] In modern Turkish, the name is written as İstanbul, with a dotted İ, as the Turkish alphabet distinguishes between a dotted and dotless I. In English, the stress is on the first or last syllable, but in Turkish it is on the second syllable.[25] A person from the city is an İstanbullu (plural İstanbullular); Istanbulite is used in English.[26]

History

Main article: History of Istanbul
For a chronological guide, see
Timeline of Istanbul history
.
This large keystone might have belonged to a triumphal arch at the Forum of Constantine (present-day Çemberlitaş)[27]

Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE,[32] On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym Lygos,[33] mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.[34]

The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[10][35][d] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosporus. The settlers built an acropolis adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy.[41] The city experienced a brief period of Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the Greco-Persian Wars.[42] Byzantium then continued as part of the Athenian League and its successor, the Second Athenian League, before gaining independence in 355 BCE.[43] Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE.[44] Byzantium's decision to side with the Roman usurper Pescennius Niger against Emperor Septimius Severus cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated.[45] Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.[46]

Byzantine era

Originally built by Constantine the Great in the 4th century and later rebuilt by Justinian I after the Nika riots in 532, the Hagia Irene is an Eastern Orthodox Church located in the outer courtyard of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. It is one of the few Byzantine era churches that were never converted into mosques; during the Ottoman period it served as Topkapı's principal armoury.
Originally a church, later a mosque, the 6th-century Hagia Sophia (532–537) by Byzantine emperor Justinian I was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until the completion of the Seville Cathedral (1507) in Spain.

Constantine the Great effectively became the emperor of the whole of the Roman Empire in September 324.[47] Two months later, he laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named Nova Roma; most called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century.[48] On 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of the Roman Empire, which was later permanently divided between the two sons of Theodosius I upon his death on 17 January 395, when the city became the capital of the empire; during the following millennium of Roman history the state is commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire".[49]

The establishment of Constantinople was one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity.

Christian civilization".[56][57]

Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of Basil II in 1025. The Fourth Crusade was diverted from its purpose in 1204, and the city was sacked and pillaged by the crusaders.[58] They established the Latin Empire in place of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.[59] Hagia Sophia was converted to a Catholic church in 1204. The Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261.[60] Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair,[61] and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from half a million during the 8th century.[e] After the reconquest of 1261, however, some of the city's monuments were restored, and some, like the two Deesis mosaics in Hagia Sophia and Kariye, were created.[62]

The 6th century Basilica Cistern was built by Justinian the Great.

Various economic and military policies instituted by Andronikos II Palaiologos, such as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to attack.[63] In the mid-14th-century, the Ottoman Turks began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly.[64] On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed, Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured Constantinople.

Ottoman Empire

Sultan Mehmed declared Constantinople the new capital of the

Kayser-i Rûm, the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of the Caesar of Rome, and the Ottoman state was reorganized into an empire.[66][67]

Map of Istanbul in the 16th century by the Ottoman polymath Matrakçı Nasuh

Following the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city. Cognizant that revitalization would fail without the repopulation of the city,

aqueducts.[70] Like many monarchs before and since, Mehmed II transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with wholesale redevelopment of the city center.[71] There was a huge new palace to rival, if not overshadow, the old one, a new covered market (still standing as the Grand Bazaar), porticoes, pavilions, walkways, as well as more than a dozen new mosques.[70] Mehmed II turned the ramshackle old town into something that looked like an imperial capital.[71]

Social hierarchy was ignored by the rampant plague, which killed the rich and the poor alike in the 16th century.[72] Money could not protect the rich from all the discomforts and harsher sides of Istanbul.[72] Although the Sultan lived at a safe remove from the masses, and the wealthy and poor tended to live side by side, for the most part Istanbul was not zoned as modern cities are.[72] Opulent houses shared the same streets and districts with tiny hovels.[72] Those rich enough to have secluded country properties had a chance of escaping the periodic epidemics of sickness that blighted Istanbul.[72]

Seraglio Point from Galata Tower

The

ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature flourished.[73] The population of Constantinople was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.[74]

A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan

decline of the Ottoman Empire.[79]

Cadde-i Kebir in 1912 (present-day İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu). The entrance of the Church of St. Anthony of Padua is seen at left. A Nestlé advertisement is visible on a building in the background.

With the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Ottoman Parliament, closed since 14 February 1878, was reopened 30 years later on 23 July 1908, which marked the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era.[80] The civil strife and political uncertainties in the Ottoman Empire during the months after the revolution encouraged Austria-Hungary to annex Bosnia and Bulgaria to declare its independence in a jointly coordinated move on 5 October 1908. Sultan Abdul Hamid II was deposed in 1909, following the counter-revolution attempt known as the 31 March incident. A series of wars in the early 20th century, such as the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), plagued the ailing empire's capital and resulted in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, which brought the regime of the Three Pashas.[81]

The Ottoman Empire joined

occupied Constantinople on 13 November 1918. The Ottoman Parliament was dissolved by the Allies on 11 April 1920 and the Ottoman delegation led by Damat Ferid Pasha was forced to sign the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920.[citation needed
]

Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was declared persona non grata. Leaving aboard the British warship HMS Malaya on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in Sanremo, Italy, on 16 May 1926.

A view of Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in the late 1920s. Completed in 1892, the Ottoman Bank headquarters is seen at left. In 1995 the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to İstinye, while numerous Turkish banks have moved to Levent and Maslak.[84]

The Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 24 July 1923, and the occupation of Constantinople ended with the departure of the last forces of the Allies from the city on 4 October 1923.[85] Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by Şükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the "Liberation Day of Istanbul" (İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu), and has been commemorated annually since.[85]

Turkish Republic

On 29 October 1923 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the Republic's first President.[86][87]

A 1942 wealth tax assessed mainly on non-Muslims led to the transfer or liquidation of many businesses owned by religious minorities.[88] The US-incited[89] and state-sanctioned 1955 Istanbul pogrom, in which hundreds of Greek men, women and children were attacked and raped and dozens murdered, led to the emigration of most of the remaining Greeks in Istanbul.[90][91] Government persecution of Greeks and religious minorities, especially Christians, intensified through the 1960s as part of the process of Turkification. Further mass expulsions of Greeks took place in 1964–1965.[92] As a result of these policies, the Greek population of Istanbul decreased from 110,000 in 1919 to 2,500 today.[93]

From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.[94] The overall population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the metropolitan area of Istanbul as result of urban sprawl.[95]

Geography and environment

Further information: Geography of Turkey and Geology of Turkey
Satellite image showing a thin piece of land, densely populated on the south, bisected by a waterway
Satellite view of Istanbul and the Bosporus

Istanbul is in north-western Turkey and straddles the

Bosporus Strait, which provides the only passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean via the Sea of Marmara.[16] Historically, the city has been ideally situated for trade and defense: The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Golden Horn provide both ideal defense against enemy attack and a natural toll-gate.[16] Several picturesque islands—Büyükada, Heybeliada, Burgazada, Kınalıada, and five smaller islands—are part of the city.[16] Istanbul's shoreline has grown beyond its natural limits. Large sections of Caddebostan sit on areas of landfill, increasing the total area of the city to 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).[16]

Despite the myth that seven hills make up the city, there are, in fact, more than 50 hills within the city limits. Istanbul's tallest hill, Aydos, is 537 meters (1,762 ft) high.[16]

Earthquakes

See also: Architecture of Turkey § Earthquakes

The

earthquake emergency response, and will be helped by NGOs such as İHH.[101]

The threat of major earthquakes plays a large role in the city's infrastructure development, with over 500,000 vulnerable buildings demolished and replaced since 2012.

buildings in Istanbul were built to a low seismic standard in the 20th century,[105] and residents think the city is not properly prepared for the earthquake.[106]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Istanbul
Şile and Kilyos are two seaside resorts on the Black Sea, the body of water which tempers Istanbul's climate.

Istanbul's climate is temperate, and is often described as transitional between the Mediterranean climate typical of the western and southern coasts of Turkey, and the oceanic climate of the northwestern coasts of the country.[107] Much divergence exists in the terminology used to classify the city's climate, however.

The city's summers are warm to hot and moderately dry, with an average daytime temperature of about 28 °C (82 °F), and less than 7 days of precipitation per month. Despite the generally acceptable temperature range, mid-summer in Istanbul is considered moderately uncomfortable, due to high dew points and relative humidity.[108] Winters, meanwhile, are cool, quite rainy, and relatively snow-rich for a city with above-freezing average temperatures.

Istanbul's precipitation is unevenly distributed, with winter months getting at least twice the level of precipitation of their summerly counterparts. The mode of precipitation also varies by season. Winter precipitation is generally light, persistent and often of mixed precipitation such as rain-snow mixes and graupel; while summer precipitation is generally abrupt and sporadic. Cloudiness, as with precipitation, varies greatly by season. Winters are quite cloudy, with around 20 percent of days being sunny or partly cloudy. Meanwhile, summers experience 60-70 percent of possible sunshine.

Snowfall is sporadic, but accumulates virtually every winter; and when it does, it is highly disruptive to city infrastructure. Sea-effect snowstorms with more than 30 centimetres (1 ft) of snowfall happen almost annually, most recently in 2022.[109][110]

Climate data for
Kireçburnu (normals 1991–2020, precipitation days and sunshine 1981–2010; see the main article
for more information)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 8.8
(47.8) 		9.4
(48.9) 		12.0
(53.6) 		16.1
(61.0) 		21.0
(69.8) 		25.7
(78.3) 		28.0
(82.4) 		28.2
(82.8) 		24.6
(76.3) 		19.9
(67.8) 		15.0
(59.0) 		10.7
(51.3) 		18.3
(64.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) 5.9
(42.6) 		6.1
(43.0) 		8.0
(46.4) 		11.5
(52.7) 		16.3
(61.3) 		21.1
(70.0) 		23.7
(74.7) 		24.2
(75.6) 		20.5
(68.9) 		16.2
(61.2) 		11.7
(53.1) 		7.9
(46.2) 		14.4
(58.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 3.6
(38.5) 		3.5
(38.3) 		4.9
(40.8) 		8.1
(46.6) 		12.8
(55.0) 		17.4
(63.3) 		20.3
(68.5) 		21.2
(70.2) 		17.4
(63.3) 		13.6
(56.5) 		9.2
(48.6) 		5.5
(41.9) 		11.5
(52.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 96.1
(3.78) 		87.7
(3.45) 		69.8
(2.75) 		45.1
(1.78) 		37.1
(1.46) 		44.7
(1.76) 		36.3
(1.43) 		43.5
(1.71) 		81.3
(3.20) 		98.3
(3.87) 		100.5
(3.96) 		124.8
(4.91) 		865.2
(34.06)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 16.9 15.2 13.2 10.0 7.4 7.0 4.7 5.1 8.1 12.3 13.9 17.5 131.3
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 cm) 4.5 4.7 2.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 2.7 15.2
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		79.8 78.6 75.8 75.1 76.5 75.7 75.3 75.9 75.0 78.4 78.9 78.4 76.9
Mean monthly sunshine hours 68.2 89.6 142.6 180.0 248.0 297.6 319.3 288.3 234.0 158.1 93.0 62.0 2,180.7
Percentage possible sunshine 22 29 38 46 57 64 69 66 65 46 31 22 46
Source: [111][112][113]

Climate change

Müze Gazhane in Kadıköy is the first climate change museum in Turkey.
Further information: Climate change in Turkey

Climate change has caused an increase in Istanbul's heatwaves,[114] droughts,[115] storms,[116] and flooding[117][118] in Istanbul. Furthermore, as Istanbul is a large and rapidly expanding city, its urban heat island has been intensifying the effects of climate change.[119] If trends continue, sea level rise is likely to affect city infrastructure, for example Kadıkoy metro station is threatened with flooding.[120] Xeriscaping of green spaces has been suggested,[121] and Istanbul has a climate-change action plan.[122]

Water

This section is an excerpt from Water supply and sanitation in Istanbul.[edit]
Water supply and sanitation in Istanbul is stressed by the expansion of the city.[123] It is the responsibility of the public utility ISKI (Istanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon Idaresi) created in 1981.

Flora and fauna

Belgrad Forest is a mixed broadleaf forest to the north of Istanbul.

The natural vegetation of the province is made up of

acclimatized to Istanbul.[124] In a study that examined urban flora in Kartal, a total of 576 plant taxa were recorded; of those 477 were natural and 99 were exotic and cultivated. The most prominent native taxa were in the Asteraceae family (50 species), while the most diverse exotic plant family was Rosaceae (16 species).[125]

short-beaked common dolphin (Turkish: tırtak) and harbor porpoise (Turkish: mutur) make up the marine mammals presently found in the Bosporus and surrounding waters, though since the 1950s the number of dolphin observations has become increasingly rare. Mediterranean monk seals were present in Bosporus, and Princes' Islands and Tuzla shores were seal breeding areas during summer, but they have not been observed in Istanbul since the 1960s and thought to be extinct in the region.[128] Water pollution, overfishing
and destruction of coastal habitats caused by urbanization are main threats to Istanbul's marine ecology.

Street cats in the city

Apart from the wild land mammals Istanbul hosts a sizeable

stray animal population. The presence of feral cats in Istanbul (Turkish: sokak kedisi) is noted to be very prevalent, with estimates ranging from a hundred thousand to over a million stray cats. The feral cats in the city have gained widespread media and public attention and are considered to be symbols of the city.[129][130] Rose-ringed parakeet colonies are present in urban areas, similar to other European cities as feral parrots, and considered as invasive species.[131]

Pollution

air pollution sensors at Sultangazi, Mecidiyeköy, Alibeyköy and Kağıthane.[134] It is one of the 10 worst cities for NO
2.[135] However a trial of congestion pricing is planned for the historic peninsula.[136]

red tides were reported in the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus (especially in Golden Horn), and regularly happen in urban lakes such as Lake Büyükçekmece and Küçükçekmece. In June 2021, a marine mucilage wave allegedly caused by water pollution spread to Sea of Marmara.[137]

Cityscape

Districts and neighborhoods

See also: Historic Areas of Istanbul and List of urban centers in Istanbul

European side

Fatih district comprises the historical peninsula of Istanbul

The Fatih district, which was named after Mehmed II (Turkish: Fatih Sultan Mehmed), corresponds to what was the whole of Constantinople until the Ottoman conquest; today it is the capital district and called the historic peninsula of Istanbul on the southern shore of the Golden Horn, across the medieval Genoese citadel of Galata on the northern shore. The Genoese fortifications in Galata were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only the Galata Tower, to make way for the northward expansion of the city.[138] Galata (Karaköy) is today a quarter within the Beyoğlu district, which forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center and includes İstiklal Avenue and Taksim Square.[139]

Two- and three-story colored houses with docks and balconies, built directly on the edge of the water
Originally outside the city, yalı residences along the Bosporus are now homes in some of Istanbul's elite neighborhoods.

Bomonti are important nodes within the CBD.[141][142]

The Atatürk Airport corridor is another such edge city-style business, residential and shopping corridor with over 900,000 m2 (9,700,000 sq ft) of class-A office space.[142]

Asian side

A view of Levent from Kanlıca across the Bosporus

During the Ottoman period,

edge cities", i.e. corridors and nodes of business and shopping centers and of tall residential buildings.[142]

Expansion

As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth in the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of gecekondus (literally "built overnight"), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings.[144] At present, some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds.[145] Moreover, large scale gentrification and urban renewal projects have been taking place,[146] such as the one in Tarlabaşı;[147] some of these projects, like the one in Sulukule, have faced criticism.[148] The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with the new Istanbul Airport, opened in 2019; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1.5 million people.[149]

Parks

Yıldız Park connects Yıldız Palace to Çırağan Palace

Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it has several green areas. Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces — Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.[150] Another park, Fethi Paşa Korusu, is on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe.

Along the European side, and close to the

Isma'il Pasha of Ottoman Egypt in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival is held there since 2005.[151]

The

Taksim Gezi Park with a replica of the Ottoman era Taksim Military Barracks (which was transformed into the Taksim Stadium in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 for building Gezi Park) sparked a series of nationwide protests in 2013
covering a wide range of issues.

Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest, spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.[152][153]

Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, and Dolmabahçe Palace
—can be seen along their shores.

Architecture

See also: Architecture of Istanbul, Ottoman architecture, and Architecture of Turkey
Galata Tower dominates the skyline of the medieval Genoese citadel at the north of the Golden Horn.

Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture. Despite its development as a Turkish city since 1923, it contains many ancient, Roman, Byzantine, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish monuments.

The Neolithic settlement in the Yenikapı quarter on the European side, which dates back to c. 6500 BCE and predates the formation of the Bosporus by approximately a millennium, when the Sea of Marmara was still a lake,[citation needed] was discovered during the construction of the Marmaray railway tunnel.[28] It is the oldest known human settlement on the European side of the city.[28] The oldest known human settlement on the Asian side is the Fikirtepe Mound near Kadıköy, with relics dating to the Chalcolithic period c. 5500 – c. 3500 BCE.

There are numerous ancient monuments in the city.

spina of the Circus Maximus in Rome in the autumn of that year, and is now known as the Lateran Obelisk. The obelisk that would become the Obelisk of Theodosius remained in Alexandria until 390, when Theodosius I (r. 379–395) had it transported to Constantinople and put up on the spina of the Hippodrome there.[155] When re-erected at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, the obelisk was mounted on a decorative base, with reliefs that depict Theodosius I and his courtiers.[154] The lower part of the obelisk was damaged in antiquity, probably during its transport to Alexandria in 357 CE or during its re-erection at the Hippodrome of Constantinople in 390 CE. As a result, the current height of the obelisk is only 18.54 meters, or 25.6 meters if the base is included. Between the four corners of the obelisk and the pedestal are four bronze cubes, used in its transportation and re-erection.[156]

Abdülaziz, the 19th-century Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Beylerbeyi and Küçüksu palaces on the Bosporus were designed by members of the Armenian Balyan family of court architects.[157]

Next in age is the

Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. The three serpent heads of the 8-meter (26 ft) high column remained intact until the end of the 17th century (one is on display at the nearby Istanbul Archaeology Museums).[158]

Built in

Manuel Komnenos (r. 1143–1180).[27][154]

There are traces of the Byzantine era throughout the city, from ancient churches that were built over early Christian meeting places like the

Porta Aurea (Golden Gate), among numerous others. The 4th century Harbor of Theodosius in Yenikapı, once the busiest port in Constantinople, was among the numerous archeological discoveries that took place during the excavations of the Marmaray tunnel.[28]

However, it is the Hagia Sophia that fully conveys the period of Constantinople as a city without parallel in Christendom. The Hagia Sophia, topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter over a square space defined by four arches, is the pinnacle of Byzantine architecture.[159] The Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral until it was converted into a mosque in the 15th century.[159] The minarets date from that period.[159] Because of its historical significance, it was reopened as a museum in 1935. However, it was re-converted into a mosque in July 2020.

İznik tiles which adorn its interior.[160] The Obelisk of Thutmose III (Obelisk of Theodosius
) is seen in the foreground.

Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with a vast building scheme that included the construction of towering mosques and ornate palaces. The

Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque), another landmark of the city, faces the Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet Square (Hippodrome of Constantinople). The Süleymaniye Mosque, built by Suleiman the Magnificent, was designed by his chief architect Mimar Sinan, the most illustrious of all Ottoman architects, who designed many of the city's renowned mosques and other types of public buildings and monuments.[161]

Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.[162] Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces.

A view of Topkapı Palace, the inner core of which was built in 1459–1465, from across the Golden Horn, with the Princes' Islands in the background

Topkapı Palace, dating back to 1465, is the oldest seat of government surviving in Istanbul. Mehmed II built the original palace as his main residence and the seat of government.

conquest of Baghdad the previous year.[165] Government meetings took place here until 1786, when the seat of government was moved to the Sublime Porte.[163] After several hundred years of royal residence, it was abandoned in 1853 in favor of the baroque Dolmabahçe Palace.[164] Topkapı Palace became public property following the abolition of monarchy in 1922.[164] After extensive renovation, it became one of Turkey's first national museums in 1924.[163]

The

Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.[166] An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque. Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.[167]

Government and politics

Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality

Istanbul Municipal Palace
Main article: Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality

Established in 1930 and restructured with the Metropolitan Municipalities Law of 2004,[168] the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (Turkish: İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi) is the main citywide local government authority responsible for public works, water infrastructure, transportation, cultural services, and such. It is a remarkable employer in Turkey with an accumulated amount of over 80,000 personnel.[169]

The current city structure traces back to the

Grand Vizier. Some religious cults and guilds also provided services for their communities.[170] The Industrial Revolution, though Ottomans were not affected in a great extent, caused influx by foreign merchants as Constantinople was laid between two continents, and the imperial government signed bilateral trade agreements with many European countries, increasing the trade volume, especially with Eastern Mediterranean ports, such as Smyrna, Thessaloniki, Alexandria, and Beirut.[171][172]

In 1854, during the

Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908 when the city was declared a province with nine constituent districts.[175][176] Though Şehremaneti and its successors were disbanded by the Turkish Revolution, the system itself continued with the establishment of Istanbul Municipality in 1930.[177]

The Municipal Council of Istanbul is the legislative organ of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. Every five years, 314 local councillors are elected by popular vote. The council is the sole authority in matters regarding the municipality's jurisdiction,[178] with an exception, UKOME (Transportation Coordination Center), which is partnered with central government agencies.[179]

Beyoğlu City Hall

District municipalities

Main articles: List of districts of Istanbul and List of neighbourhoods of Istanbul

District municipalities are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projectes within their respective districts, yet the law allows basically all services but critical infrastructure, such as public transportation and water management.[180] They are independent from the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and have their own budgets and structure with administrative autonomy to some extent. District municipalities and the metropolitan municipality often collaborate for local projects.[181][182]

Muhtar is the lowest-tier elected official in Turkey. Each neighborhood has a Muhtar, tasked with helping citizens in regards of bureaucracy and building a bridge between locals and the central government. They report to the civil administration and are the first authority to represent neighborhoods in public policy process.[183]

Istanbul Governor's Office, Fatih

Civil administration

Main article: Istanbul Governor's Office

In Turkey, civil administration (Turkish: Mülki idare) refers to appointed officials of the central government to provinces and districts. They handle local affairs of national agencies, such as the General Directorate of Security. Law enforcement in Turkey is mostly centralized, and thus Istanbul does not have a separated armed police force. Vali and their organization are responsible for coordinating public safety efforts throughout a province.[184]

Kaymakam is a representative of the central government in a district. Their nature of duties is similar to a Vali, yet they also handle bureaucratic works regarding the central government organizations in their respective districts. For instance, Kaymakam may audit a school operated by the Ministry of National Education.[185]

Politics

Politically, Istanbul is seen as the most important administrative region in Turkey. In the run-up to

Mayor of Istanbul, first elected in 2019 and re-elected in 2024
.

More recently, Istanbul and many of Turkey's metropolitan cities are following a trend away from the government and their right-wing ideology. In 2013 and 2014, large scale

Supreme Electoral Council due to AKP's claim of electoral fraud. In the re-run İmamoğlu gathered 54.22% of the total vote and widened his margin of victory.[189]

Following the 2019 election, a trend towards the CHP has persisted across the city. In the 2023 presidential election the CHP candidate, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, received 48.56% of the city's vote, while the incumbent president and AKP candidate, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, received 46.68%.

In the 2024 local elections, Ekrem İmamoğlu was re-elected by a 12-point margin. İmamoğlu won 51.15% of the vote, while the AKP's candidate Murat Kurum received 39.59%. Additionally, the CHP won the mayoralties in 26 of İstanbul's 39 districts.[190]

Administratively, Istanbul is divided into 39 districts, more than any other

one on the Asian side, electing 28, 35 and 35 MPs respectively.[citation needed
]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Istanbul
See also: Demographics of Turkey
Istanbul population pyramid in 2022
Historical populations
Pre-Republic
YearPop.
10036,000
361300,000
500400,000
7th c.150–350,000
8th c.125–500,000
9th c.50–250,000
1000150–300,000
1100200,000
1200150,000
1261100,000
135080,000
145345,000
1500200,000
1550660,000
1700700,000
1815500,000
1860715,000
1890874,000
1900942,900
Republic
YearPop.±% p.a.
1925881,000—    
1927691,000−11.44%
1935740,800+0.87%
1940793,900+1.39%
1945845,300+1.26%
1950983,000+3.06%
19601,459,500+4.03%
19651,743,000+3.61%
19702,132,400+4.12%
19752,547,400+3.62%
19802,853,500+2.30%
19855,494,900+14.00%
19906,620,200+3.80%
19947,615,500+3.56%
19978,260,400+2.75%
20008,831,800+2.25%
200711,174,200+3.42%
201514,657,434+3.45%
201614,804,116+1.00%
201715,029,231+1.52%
201815,067,724+0.26%
201915,519,267+3.00%
Sources: Jan Lahmeyer 2004, Chandler 1987, Morris 2010,Turan 2010[191]
Pre-Republic figures estimated[e]

Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. By 500 CE, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for the world's largest city.[193] Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as Baghdad, Chang'an, Kaifeng and Merv for the position of the world's largest city until the 12th century. It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained the largest city in Europe from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by London.[194]

The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 15,519,267 at the end of 2019, hosting 19 percent of the country's population.[195] 64.4% of the residents live on the European side and 35.6% on the Asian side.[195]

Istanbul ranks as the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second and third fastest-growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of İzmir and Ankara.[17]

Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.[198] This growth was fueled by internal and international migration. Istanbul's foreign population with a residence permit increased dramatically, from 43,000 in 2007[199] to 856,377 in 2019.[200][201]

According to 2020 TÜİK data around 2.1 million people in a population of over 15.4 million have been registered

Eastern Anatolia regions due to internal migration since the 1950s.[202] People registered in Kastamonu, Ordu, Giresun, Erzurum, Samsun, Malatya, Trabzon, Sinop and Rize provinces represent the biggest population groups in Istanbul, meanwhile people registered in Sivas has the highest percentage with more than 760 thousand residents in the city.[203] A 2019 survey found that only 36% of the Istanbul's population was born in the province.[204]

Ethnic and religious groups

Main article: Religion in Istanbul
See also:
Jews in Turkey, and Albanians in Turkey
Ethnic groups among Turkish citizens in Istanbul (2019 KONDA survey)
Turks
 
 78%
Kurds
 
 17%
Zazas
 
 1%
Arabs
 
 1%
Others
 
 3%

Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman era. The dominant ethnic group in the city is Turkish people, which also forms the majority group in Turkey. According to survey data 78% of the voting-age Turkish citizens in Istanbul state "Turkish" as their ethnic identity.[204]

With estimates ranging from 2 to 4 million, Kurds form one of the largest ethnic minorities in Istanbul and are the biggest group after Turks among Turkish citizens.[205][206] According to a 2019 KONDA study, Kurds constituted around 17% of Istanbul's adult total population who were Turkish citizens.[204] Although the initial Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,[207] the majority of Kurds in the city originate from villages in eastern and southeastern Turkey.[208] Zazas are also present in the city and constitute around 1% of the total voting-age population.[204]

refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey residing in Istanbul was estimated to be around 1 million.[213] Native Arab population in Turkey who are Turkish citizens are found to be making up less than 1% of city's total adult population.[204] As of August 2023, there were more than 530,000 refugees of the Syrian civil war in Istanbul, the highest number in any Turkish city.[214]

Built by Suleiman the Magnificent, the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550–1557) was designed by his chief architect Mimar Sinan, the most illustrious of all Ottoman architects.[161]

A 2019 survey study by KONDA that examined the religiosity of the voting-age adults in Istanbul showed that 57% of the surveyed had a religion and were trying to practise its requirements. This was followed by nonobservant people with 26% who identified with a religion but generally did not practise its requirements. 11% stated they were fully devoted to their religion, meanwhile 6% were

Sunni Muslims and Alevism forms the second biggest religious group.[204][215]

Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either

thousands to leave.[217] Following Greek migration to the city for work in the 2010s, the Greek population rose to nearly 3,000 in 2019, still greatly diminished since 1919, when it stood at 350,000.[217] There are today 50,000 to 70,000 Armenians in Istanbul[218] down from a peak of 164,000 in 1913.[219] As of 2019, an estimated 18,000 of the country's 25,000 Christian Assyrians live in Istanbul.[220]

There are 234 active churches and chapels in the city,[221] including the Church of St. Anthony of Padua on İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu (Pera).

The majority of the Catholic Levantines (Turkish: Levanten) in Istanbul and İzmir are the descendants of traders/colonists from the Italian maritime republics of the Mediterranean (especially Genoa and Venice) and France, who obtained special rights and privileges called the Capitulations from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century.[222] The community had more than 15,000 members during Atatürk's presidency in the 1920s and 1930s, but today is reduced to only a few hundreds, according to Italo-Levantine writer Giovanni Scognamillo.[223] They continue to live in Istanbul (mostly in Karaköy, Beyoğlu and Nişantaşı), and İzmir (mostly in Karşıyaka, Bornova and Buca).

Istanbul became one of the world's most important Jewish centers in the 16th and 17th century.

Jews in Europe, Ottoman Jews were allowed to work in any profession.[225] Ottoman Jews in Istanbul excelled in commerce and came to particularly dominate the medical profession.[225] By 1711, using the printing press, books came to be published in Spanish and Ladino, Yiddish, and Hebrew.[226] In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population in the city dropped from 100,000 in 1950[227] to 15,000 in 2021.[228][229][230]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Istanbul
Levent is one of the main business districts in Istanbul, together with Maslak and Şişli on the European side and Ataşehir on the Asian side

Istanbul had the eleventh-largest economy among the world's urban areas in 2018, and is responsible for 30 percent of Turkey's industrial output,[231] 31 percent of GDP,[231] and 47 percent of tax revenues.[231] The city's gross domestic product adjusted by PPP stood at US$537.507 billion in 2018,[232] with manufacturing and services accounting for 36 percent and 60 percent of the economic output respectively.[231] Istanbul's productivity is 110 percent higher than the national average.[231] Trade is economically important, accounting for 30 percent of the economic output in the city.[16] In 2019, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth $83.66 billion and received imports totaling $128.34 billion; these figures were equivalent to 47 percent and 61 percent, respectively, of the national totals.[233]

Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus strait, houses international ports that link Europe and Asia. The Bosporus, providing the only passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, is the world's busiest and narrowest

Canal Istanbul, a project to open a new strait between the Black and Marmara seas.[235] While the project was still on Turkey's agenda in 2020, there has not been a clear date set for it.[16]

Deutsche Orientbank AG (1909) in Sirkeci

Shipping is a significant part of the city's economy, with 73.9 percent of exports and 92.7 percent of imports in 2018 executed by sea.[16] Istanbul has three major shipping ports – the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu – as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara.[16]

Haydarpaşa, at the southeastern end of the Bosporus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s.[236] Since then operations were shifted to Ambarlı, with plans to convert Haydarpaşa into a tourism complex.[16] In 2019, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 3,104,882 TEUs, making it the third-largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.[236]

Istanbul has been an international banking hub since the 1980s,[16] and is home to the only active stock exchange in Turkey, Borsa Istanbul, which was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866.[237]

Ottoman Central Bank Head Office (1892) on Bankalar Caddesi

In 1995, keeping up with the financial trends, Borsa Istanbul moved its headquarters (which was originally located on Bankalar Caddesi, the financial center of the Ottoman Empire,[237] and later at the 4th Vakıf Han building in Sirkeci) to İstinye, in the vicinity of Maslak, which hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish banks.[238]

Since 2023, the

Nef Stadium in the Huzur neighbourhood of the Sarıyer district on the European side, and Istanbul Sapphire (54 floors / 238 metres; 261 metres including its spire)[247] in Levent
on the European side.

13.4 million foreign tourists visited the city in 2018, making Istanbul the world's fifth most-visited city in that year.[248] Istanbul and Antalya are Turkey's two largest international gateways, receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul has more than fifty museums, with the Topkapı Palace, the most visited museum in the city, bringing in more than $30 million in revenue each year.[16]

Istanbul expects 1 million tourists from cruise companies after the renovation of its cruise port, also known as Galataport in Karaköy district.[249]

A view of Dolmabahçe Palace and the skyscrapers of Levent financial district in the background.[250][251] Providing the only sea route to the Black Sea, the Bosporus is the world's busiest waterway that is used for international navigation.[16]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Istanbul
Yalı houses on the Bosporus are among the frequently used settings in Turkish television drama.

Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara.[252] The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.[253]

Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.[254]

By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s.[255] When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.[256]

The façade of a masonry building, with four Greek adorning its entrance, under a clear blue sky
The Istanbul Archaeology Museums, founded by Osman Hamdi Bey in 1891, form Turkey's oldest modern museum.[257]

Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including

İstanbul Modern, the Pera Museum, Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Arter and SantralIstanbul, opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.[258] These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.[257]

The restored Paket Postanesi (Parcel Post Office) building is now a symbol of Galataport. The district is also home to Museums Square.

The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.[259] Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue.[260] Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey's nascent film industry, although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s.[261] Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies.[262] The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, and with Uzak (2002) and My Father and My Son (2005), both filmed in Istanbul, the nation's movies began to see substantial international success.[263] Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including From Russia with Love (1963), Topkapi (1964), The World Is Not Enough (1999), and Mission Istaanbul (2008).[264]

Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the International Istanbul Film Festival and the Istanbul Jazz Festival in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the Istanbul International Music Festival since 1994.[265] The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial, held every two years since 1987. Its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elite biennales, alongside the Venice Biennale and the São Paulo Art Biennial.[266]

Leisure and entertainment

İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu

Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı, Galataport Shopping Area in Karaköy and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.[267][268] Other focal points for shopping, leisure and entertainment include Nişantaşı, Ortaköy, Bebek and Kadıköy.[269] The city has numerous shopping centers, from the historic to the modern. Istanbul also has an active nightlife and historic taverns, a signature characteristic of the city for centuries, if not millennia.

The Grand Bazaar, in operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets.[270][271] Mahmutpasha Bazaar is an open-air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the Spice Bazaar, which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660.

Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.[272] Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. Akmerkez was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; and Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.[271] Zorlu Center and İstinye Park are among the other upscale malls in Istanbul which include the stores of the world's top fashion brands.

Süreyya Opera House is situated on the Asian side of Istanbul and Atatürk Cultural Center is the main opera house on the European side.

Along İstiklal Avenue is the Çiçek Pasajı ('Flower Passage'), a 19th-century shopping gallery which is today home to winehouses (known as meyhanes), pubs and restaurants.[273] İstiklal Avenue, originally known for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs.[274][275] Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music.[276]

Zorlu Center, designed by EAA and Tabanlıoğlu Architects, includes Zorlu PSM, the city's largest performing arts theatre and concert hall.

Istanbul is known for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosporus (particularly in neighborhoods like Ortaköy, Bebek, Arnavutköy, Yeniköy, Beylerbeyi and Çengelköy). Kumkapı along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants.[277]

The Princes' Islands, 15 kilometers (9 mi) from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Princes' Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.[278]

Istanbul is also famous for its sophisticated and elaborately-cooked dishes of the Ottoman cuisine. Following the influx of immigrants from southeastern and eastern Turkey, which began in the 1960s, the city's foodscape has drastically changed by the end of the century; with influences of Middle Eastern cuisine such as kebab taking an important place in the food scene.

Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the Beyoğlu, Beşiktaş, Şişli and Kadıköy districts.

Apart from the city's numerous stadiums, sports halls and concert halls, there are several open-air venues for concerts and festivals, such as the Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre in Harbiye, Paraf Kuruçeşme Open-Air on the Bosphorus shore in Kuruçeşme, and Parkorman in the forest of Maslak. The annual Istanbul Jazz Festival has been held every year since 1994. Organized between 2003 and 2013, Rock'n Coke was the biggest open-air rock festival in Turkey, sponsored by Coca-Cola. It was traditionally held at the Hezarfen Airfield in Istanbul.

Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı, one of Istanbul's premier shopping streets

The Istanbul International Music Festival has been held annually since 1973, and the International Istanbul Film Festival has been held annually since 1982. The Istanbul Biennial is a contemporary art exhibition that has been held biennially since 1987. The Istanbul Shopping Fest is an annual shopping festival held since 2011, and Teknofest is an annual festival of aviation, aerospace and technology, held since 2018.

When it was held for the first time in 2003, the annual Istanbul Pride became the first gay pride event in a Muslim-majority country.[279] Since 2015, all types of parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue (where, in 2013, the Gezi Park protests took place) have been denied permission by the AKP government, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year. Critics have claimed that the bans were in fact due to ideological reasons.

Sports

See also: List of sport facilities in Istanbul
Vodafone Park

Istanbul is home to some of Turkey's oldest

Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Büyükçekmece—that play in the premier-level Basketbol Süper Ligi.[284]

Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the

Vodafone Park, opened in 2016 to replace BJK İnönü Stadium as the home turf of Beşiktaş, hosted the 2019 UEFA Super Cup game. All four stadiums are elite Category 4 (formerly five-star) UEFA stadiums.[g]

The

Ülker Sports Arena, which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.[293] Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics—in 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2020—and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully.[294] The city will host the 2027 edition of the European Games
.

The

World Championship titles.[citation needed
]

Between the 2005–2011 seasons,

F1 Powerboat World Championship, with the last race on the Bosporus strait on 12–13 August 2000.[301][unreliable source?] The last race of the Powerboat P1 World Championship on the Bosporus took place on 19–21 June 2009.[302] Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races and other sailing events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.[303][304]

Media

Küçük Çamlıca TV Radio Tower (369 m (1,211 ft)) is the tallest structure in the city.[305]

Most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Affairs), was published in 1831. The Cağaloğlu street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.[306]

Istanbul now has a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.[307] Hürriyet, Sabah, Posta and Sözcü, the country's top four papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 275,000 weekly sales each.[308] Hürriyet's English-language edition, Hürriyet Daily News, has been printed since 1961, but the English-language Daily Sabah, first published by Sabah in 2014, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications like Cumhuriyet, Milliyet and Habertürk are also based in Istanbul.[307] Istanbul also has long-running Armenian language newspapers, notably the dailies Marmara and Jamanak and the bilingual weekly Agos in Armenian and Turkish.[309]

Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post

Istanbul Radio House

Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990.[310] Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country's population, but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, Radio 2 is the most popular radio station in Turkey.[310] Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the exceptions, offering both, is Açık Radyo (94.9 FM). Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's Metro FM (97.2 FM). The state-run Radio 3, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, and English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).[311]

TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul.

Sky Turk—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The BBC has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish-language CNN Türk there in 1999.[314]

Further information on the monthly publication: Mostar (magazine)

Education

Further information: Education in Turkey
A triumphal arch adjacent to a Turkish flag and in front of an open plaza
Main entrance gate of Istanbul University, the city's oldest Turkish institution, established in 1453

As of 2019, excluding universities more than 3.1 million students attended

Istanbul Lisesi and Cağaloğlu Anatolian High School are among other public high schools in the city. Istanbul also contains high schools established by the European and American expatriates and missionaries in the 19th century that currently offer secular, foreign-language education such as Robert College, Deutsche Schule Istanbul, Sankt Georgs-Kolleg, Lycée Saint-Joseph and Liceo Italiano di Istanbul.[318] Furthermore Turkish citizens of Jewish, Armenian, Greek and Assyrian descent are allowed to establish and attend their respective schools as granted in the Treaty of Lausanne, Phanar Greek Orthodox College being an example.[319] Most high schools are highly selective and demand high scores from the national standardized LGS exam [tr] for admission, with Galatasaray and Robert College only accepting the top 0.1% to 0.01% of the exam takers.[320]

Istanbul contains almost a third of all

vocational universities of higher education. There are also military academies, including the Turkish Air Force Academy and Turkish Naval Academy as well as four foundation-owned vocational universities of higher education which are not affiliated with any university.[321]

Maçka (left) and Taşkışla (right) campuses of Istanbul Technical University

Some of the most renowned and highly ranked universities in Turkey are in Istanbul.

Özyeğin Üniversitesi near Altunizade. Istanbul's first private university, Koç University, was founded as late as 1992, because private universities were not allowed in Turkey before the 1982 amendment to the constitution.[317] Istanbul is also home to several conservatories and art schools, including Mimar Sinan Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1882.[322]

Public universities with a major presence in the city, such as Istanbul University, Istanbul Technical University (the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering, established in 1773), and Boğaziçi University (formerly the higher education section of Robert College until 1971) provide education in English as the primary foreign language, while the primary foreign language of education at Galatasaray University is French.[317]

Public services

Main article: Utilities in Istanbul
Further information: Telecommunications in Turkey and Health care in Turkey

Istanbul's first

Valens Aqueduct) deposited the water in the city's numerous cisterns.[323] At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters (150,000 cu ft) of water to 158 sites each day.[323] In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the Fountain of Ahmed III, by means of supply lines.[324] Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi, İSKİ).[325]

A brick factory stands in front of a park, with open green space, a reflecting pool, and benches
The Silahtarağa Power Station, known as SantralIstanbul, part of the Istanbul Bilgi University, was Istanbul's sole source of power between 1914 and 1952

The

electric utilities.[327]

The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established.[328] Sultan Abdülmecid I issued Samuel Morse his first official honor for the electrical telegraph in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and Edirne—finished in time to announce the end of the Crimean War in 1856.[329]

Grand Post Office in Sirkeci, Istanbul, was designed by Vedat Tek in the Turkish neoclassical style of the early 20th century.[330]

A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.[328][331] GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.[332] Today, mobile and landline service is provided by private companies, after Türk Telekom, which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.[328][332] Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the acronym PTT).[328]

In 2000, Istanbul had 137 hospitals, of which 100 were private.

hair transplant surgery is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.[337]

Transportation

The suspension bridges at the Bosporus
15 July Martyrs Bridge
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge
Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge
Main articles: Public transport in Istanbul, Istanbul Metro, and Ferries in Istanbul
Further information:
Roads in Turkey, Rail transport in Turkey, and Aviation in Turkey

Roads

Istanbul's motorways network are the

Sabiha Gökçen Airport.[344] Environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul.[345][346] Apart from the three Bosphorus Bridges, the dual-deck, 14.6-kilometer (9.1 mi) Eurasia Tunnel (which entered service on 20 December 2016) under the Bosphorus strait also provides road crossings for motor vehicles between the Asian and European sides of Turkey.[347] Road transport emits significant carbon dioxide, estimated at 7 million tons in 2021.[348]

Public transportation

Istanbul's local public transportation system is a network of

Kabataş began running in 2006.[352][353]

The

M1, M2, M3, M6, M7, M9 and M11 on the European side, and the M4, M5 and M8 on the Asian side) with several other lines (M12 and M14) and extensions under construction.[354][355] The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray Tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia, having 13.5 km (8.4 mi) length.[356] The Marmaray tunnel together with the suburban railways lines along the Sea of Marmara, form the intercontinental commuter rail line in Istanbul, named officially B1, from Halkalı on the European side to Gebze on the Asian side. This rail line has 76.6 km (47.6 mi), and the full line opened on 12 March 2019.[357] Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two-halves of the city, accommodating 2.2 million passenger trips each day.[358] The Metrobus, a form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.[359]

Ferries

Şehir Hatları, crossing the Bosphorus
An İDO
deniz otobüsü (seabus) high-speed ferry departs Istanbul

There are three main

Şehir Hatları operates the traditional vapur ferries on 891 daily trips between 53 piers across the Bosporus and the Princes' Islands.[360]

The privately owned İDO (Istanbul Sea Buses) runs a combination of high-speed passenger ferries and vehicle ferries within Istanbul and to destinations across the Sea of Marmara.[361] A smaller private company, Turyol also operates services across the Bosphorus. The city's main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.[362]

Railroads

Sirkeci Terminal building was constructed between 1888 and 1890, and became the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris.[363]

International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul's

Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway forced the station to close in 2012.[369] New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, now the Marmaray second phase opened to the public.[369] Private bus companies still operation to this day. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers, serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt.[370][371]

Airports

Istanbul has had three large international airports, two of which currently serve commercial passenger flights. The largest is the new Istanbul Airport, opened in 2018 in the Arnavutköy district to the northwest of the city center, on the European side, near the Black Sea coast.

All scheduled commercial passenger flights were transferred from

IATA code IST was also transferred to the new airport.[373] Once all phases are completed in 2025, the airport will have six sets of runways (eight in total), 16 taxiways, and will be able to accommodate 200 million passengers a year.[374][375]
The transfer from the airport to the city is via the O-7, and it will eventually be linked by two lines of the Istanbul Metro.

Sabiha Gökçen International Airport, 45 kilometers (28 mi) southeast of the city center, on the Asian side, was opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk. Dominated by low-cost carriers, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009;[376] the airport handled 14.7 million passengers in 2012, a year after Airports Council International named it the world's fastest-growing airport.[377][378] Atatürk had also experienced rapid growth, as its 20.6 percent rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world's top 30 airports.[379]

Istanbul Atatürk Airport, located 24 kilometers (15 mi) west of the city center, on the European side, near the Marmara Sea coast, was formerly the city's largest airport. After its closure to commercial flights in 2019, it was briefly used by cargo aircraft and the official state aircraft owned by the Turkish government, until the demolition of its runway began in 2020. It handled 61.3 million passengers in 2015, which made it the

18th-busiest in the world in that year.[379]

International relations

See also

Notes

  1. ^ İstanbul Province = 5,460.85 km2
    • Land area = 5,343.22 km2
    • Lake/Dam = 117.63 km2
    • Europe (25 districts) = 3,474.35 km2
    • Asia (14 districts) = 1,868.87 km2
    • Urban (36 districts) = 2,576.85 km2 [Metro (39 districts) – (Çatalca+Silivri+Şile)]

    *According to the size of the population and the status of megacity, the limits of the Istanbul city correspond to the limits of the province, and the province is treated like as the metropolitan-city of Istanbul.

  2. ^ English pronunciation: /ˌɪstænˈbʊl/ IST-an-BUUL,[7][8] US also /ˈɪstænbʊl/ IST-an-buul; Turkish: İstanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [isˈtanbuɫ] ⓘ, colloquial Turkish pronunciation: [ɯsˈtambuɫ])
  3. ^ Istanbul straddles both Europe and Asia, with its commercial and historical centre and two-thirds of the population in Europe, the rest in Asia. Since Istanbul is a transcontinental city, Moscow is the largest city entirely within Europe.
  4. ^ The foundation of Byzantion (Byzantium) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BCE. Historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BCE historian Herodotus, which says the city was founded seventeen years after Chalcedon,[36] which came into existence around 685 BCE. Eusebius concurs with 685 BCE as the year Chalcedon was founded, but places Byzantion's establishment in 659 BCE.[37] Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BCE[38] and others have suggested even later. The foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC,[39] others put it in 675 BCE[40] or even 639 BCE (with Byzantion's establishment placed in 619 BCE).[37] Some sources refer to Byzantium's foundation as the 7th century BCE.
  5. ^ a b Historians disagree—sometimes substantially—on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. A follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,Chandler 1987, pp. 463–505[74] examines different sources' estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to Morris 2010, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with Turan 2010 on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan's figures, as well as the 2010 figure,[192] come from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city's limits (see the Administration section). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the History section.
  6. ^ Based on state register data, which is unchangeable and inherited from the family. A married women is also registered to her husband's province.
  7. Türk Telekom Arena is noted as an elite UEFA stadium by its architects.[291]

References

  1. ^ "YETKİ ALANI". Istanbul Buyuksehir Belediyesi. Archived from the original on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
  2. ^ "İstanbul'un En Yüksek Tepeleri". Hava Forumu. Hava Durumu Forumu. 15 April 2020.
  3. ^ a b "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2024". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2025. Retrieved 6 February 2025.
  4. ^ "GDP by Provinces, 2023 - İstanbul had the highest share of GDP with 30.4% (Tables 1 and 3)". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 12 December 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  5. ^ "Ulusal Hesaplar - Kişi başına GSYH ($)" [National Accounts - GDP per capita ($)]. www.tuik.gov.tr (in Turkish). Turkish Statistical Institute. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  6. ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org.
  7. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
    .
  8. ISBN 978-1-138-12566-7
    .
  9. ISBN 978-0-691-14369-9
    .
  10. ^ a b c d e "Istanbul". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 October 2023.
  11. ISBN 0-19-504652-8
    .
  12. ^ Çelik 1993, p. xv.
  13. ^ a b Masters & Ágoston 2009, pp. 114–15
  14. ^ "2023's Top 100 City Destinations Ranking: Triumphs and Turmoil Uncovered". Euromonitor International. 11 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
  15. ^ VnExpress. "Bangkok named world's top tourism city for 2024 - VnExpress International". VnExpress International – Latest news, business, travel and analysis from Vietnam. Archived from the original on 8 December 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2024.
  16. ^
    ISBN 978-1-5381-0224-4
    .
  17. ^
    ISBN 978-92-64-04383-1
    .
  18. ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2024, pp. 76–77
  19. ^ a b c d Room 2006, p. 177
  20. ^ Georgacas 1947, p. 352ff.
  21. ^ Necipoğlu 2010, p. 262.
  22. ^ Necdet Sakaoğlu (1993/94a): "İstanbul'un adları" ["The names of Istanbul"]. In: Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi, ed. Türkiye Kültür Bakanlığı, Istanbul.
  23. ^ Grosvenor, Edwin Augustus (1895). Constantinople. Vol. 1. Roberts Brothers. p. 69. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
  24. ^ Finkel 2005, pp. 57, 383.
  25. ^ Göksel & Kerslake 2005, p. 27.
  26. ^ Keyder 1999, p. 95.
  27. ^ a b "Forum of Constantine". www.byzantium1200.com. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  28. ^ a b c d e Rainsford, Sarah (10 January 2009). "Istanbul's ancient past unearthed". www.bbc.com. BBC. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
  29. S2CID 129280217
    .
  30. ^ "Bu keşif tarihi değiştirir". hurriyet.com.tr. 3 October 2008.
  31. ^ "Marmaray kazılarında tarih gün ışığına çıktı". fotogaleri.hurriyet.com.tr.
  32. ^ "Cultural Details of Istanbul". Republic of Turkey, Minister of Culture and Tourism. Archived from the original on 12 September 2007. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
  33. ^ Janin, Raymond (1964). Constantinople byzantine. Paris: Institut Français d'Études Byzantines. pp. 10ff.
  34. ^ "Pliny the Elder, book IV, chapter XI:
    "On leaving the Dardanelles we come to the Bay of Casthenes, ... and the promontory of the Golden Horn, on which is the town of Byzantium, a free state, formerly called Lygos; it is 711 miles from Durazzo, ...""    . Archived from the original on 1 January 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
  35. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 1.
  36. ^ Herodotus Histories 4.144, translated in De Sélincourt 2003, p. 288
  37. ^ a b Isaac 1986, p. 199.
  38. ^ Roebuck 1959, p. 119, also as mentioned in Isaac 1986, p. 199
  39. ^ Lister 1979, p. 35.
  40. ^ Freely 1996, p. 10.
  41. ^ Çelik 1993, p. 11.
  42. ^ De Souza 2003, p. 88.
  43. ^ Freely 1996, p. 20.
  44. ^ Freely 1996, p. 22.
  45. ^ Grant 1996, pp. 8–10.
  46. ^ Limberis 1994, pp. 11–12.
  47. ^ Barnes 1981, p. 77
  48. ^ Barnes 1981, p. 212
  49. ^ a b Barnes 1981, p. 222
  50. ^ a b Gregory 2010, p. 63
  51. ^ Klimczuk & Warner 2009, p. 171
  52. ^ Dash, Mike (2 March 2012). "Blue Versus Green: Rocking the Byzantine Empire". Smithsonian Magazine. The Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  53. ^ Dahmus 1995, p. 117
  54. ^ Cantor 1994, p. 226
  55. ^ Morris 2010, pp. 109–18
  56. ISBN 9781438106397
    .
  57. ISBN 9781444333619
    .
  58. ^ Gregory 2010, pp. 324–29.
  59. ^ Gregory 2010, pp. 330–333.
  60. ^ Gregory 2010, p. 340.
  61. ^ Gregory 2010, pp. 341–342.
  62. ^ "Deesis Mosaic". Hagia Sophia. 5 November 2017. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  63. ^ Reinert 2002, pp. 258–260.
  64. ^ Baynes 1949, p. 47.
  65. ^ Gregory 2010, pp. 394–399.
  66. ^ Béhar 1999, p. 38.
  67. ^ Bideleux & Jeffries 1998, p. 71.
  68. ^ Inalcik, Halil. "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229–49. p. 236
  69. ^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1977, pp. 306–07
  70. ^
    ISBN 978-1-78022-473-2
    .
  71. ^
    ISBN 978-0-14-312969-1
    .
  72. ^
    ISBN 978-1-59884-253-1
    .
  73. ^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1977, pp. 735–36
  74. ^
    ISBN 978-0-12-785109-9
    .
  75. ^ Shaw & Shaw 1977, pp. 4–6, 55
  76. ^ Çelik 1993, pp. 87–89
  77. ^ a b Harter 2005, p. 251
  78. ^ Shaw & Shaw 1977, pp. 230, 287, 306
  79. ^ Çelik, Zeynep (1986). The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley. Los Angeles. London: University of California Press. p. 37.
  80. ^ "Meclis-i Mebusan (Mebuslar Meclisi)". Tarihi Olaylar.
  81. ^ Çelik 1993, p. 31
  82. ISBN 978-1-4042-1825-3
    .
  83. ^ Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and the Dönme in Ottoman Salonica and Turkish Istanbul. Marc Baer, University of California, Irvine.
  84. ^ "Milestones in Borsa Istanbul History". www.borsaistanbul.com. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  85. ^ a b "6 Ekim İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu" (in Turkish). Sözcü. 6 October 2017.
  86. ^ Landau 1984, p. 50
  87. ^ Dumper & Stanley 2007, p. 39
  88. S2CID 159425371
    .
  89. ^ "Radikal-çevrimiçi / Türkiye / 6-7 Eylül'ün anlamı". 30 January 2009. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 7 March 2025.
  90. ^ Erdemir, Aykan (7 September 2016). "The Turkish Kristallnacht". Politico Europe. Archived from the original on 20 October 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  91. ISSN 1911-0359. Archived
    from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2015. The Septemvriana satisfies the criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the intent to destroy in whole or in part the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. Even if the number of deaths (estimated at thirty-seven) among members of the Greek community was relatively low, the result of the pogrom was the flight and emigration of the Greek minority of Istanbul, which once numbered some 100,000 and was subsequently reduced to a few thousand. The vast destruction of Greek property, businesses, and churches provides evidence of the Turkish authorities' intent to terrorize the Greeks in Istanbul into abandoning the territory, thus eliminating the Greek minority. This practice falls within the ambit of the crime of ethnic cleansing, which the UN General Assembly and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia have interpreted as constituting a form of genocide... Besides the deaths, thousands were injured; some 200 Greek women were raped, and there are reports that Greek boys were raped as well. Many Greek men, including at least one priest, were subjected to forced circumcision. The riots were accompanied by enormous material damage, estimated by Greek authorities at US$500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. As a result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey.
  92. ISBN 978-0-7591-1477-7
    . Retrieved 27 August 2024.
  93. ISBN 978-1-56432-056-8
    . Retrieved 27 August 2024.
  94. ^ Keyder 1999, pp. 11–12, 34–36
  95. ^ Efe & Cürebal 2011, pp. 718–719
  96. ^ "Locked and creeping fault segments off Istanbul". www.gfz-potsdam.de. 4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  97. ^ a b "Turkey recovers from one earthquake and braces for more". The Economist. 5 December 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  98. ^ "64 pct chance of Istanbul quake to hit before 2030: Expert". Hürriyet Daily News. 4 March 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
  99. ^ "Earthquake hazard in Istanbul". www.eskp.de. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  100. ^ "Directorate of Earthquake and Geotechnical Investigation". depremzemin.ibb.istanbul. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  101. ^ "İHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation". İHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  102. ^ "Turkey's earthquake is a warning for Istanbul, which would face even more deaths from a quake".
  103. ^ "600,000 flats would collapse in major earthquake in Istanbul, says minister". Gazete Duvar (in Turkish). 8 February 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  104. ISSN 0013-0613
    . Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  105. ^ EFE, Agencia (5 February 2024). "Is Istanbul prepared for a big earthquake?". EFE Noticias. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  106. ^ "Istanbulites concerned over impending earthquake: Survey - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 28 March 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  107. ^ a b Klimatoloji 2. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı.
  108. ISSN 0000-0000
    .
  109. ^ "La neve sulle coste del Mediterraneo". www.nimbus.it. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
  110. ^ "İstanbul'da bazı ilçelerde kar kalınlığı 85 santimetreyi buldu". www.birgun.net.
  111. ^ "Resmi İstatistikler". Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü. Archived from the original on 23 December 2020. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  112. ^ "Rivista Ligure di Meteorologia 44 - La neve sulle coste del Mediterraneo". www.nimbus.it. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
  113. ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  114. ^ "Turkey reeling from African heat wave". Daily Sabah. 2 July 2017.
  115. ^ "Gov't forced to take measures amid below average rainfall across Turkey". Hürriyet Daily News. 21 January 2018.
  116. ^ "Lightning electrifies Istanbul, northwestern Turkey skies as thunderstorms take over". Daily Sabah. 24 July 2018.
  117. ^ "Istanbul flood result of Turkey's climate change". Anadolu Agency. 27 July 2017.
  118. ^ Şen, Ömer Lütfi. "Climate Change in Turkey". Mercator–IPC Fellowship Program=. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  119. ^ "Climatologie globale à Istanbul / Ataturk - Infoclimat". www.infoclimat.fr. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
  120. ^ "Temperature to increase significantly in Turkey in 30 years due to global warming, warns climate expert". Hürriyet Daily News. 19 March 2018.
  121. doi:10.15244/pjoes/76678
    .
  122. ^ "İstanbul İklim Değişikliği Eylem Planı". Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
  123. ^ "What happens if Istanbul's water supplies run dry?". www.bbc.com. 21 February 2025. Retrieved 16 March 2025.
  124. ^ "Bosphorus as our cultural heritage" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011.
  125. ^ Altay, Volkan; Ouml, Brahim Lker; zyiit; Yarci, Celal (31 January 2010). "Urban flora and ecological characteristics of the Kartal District (Istanbul): A contribution to urban ecology in Turkey".
  126. ^ Artüz M.L. (1999) Inventory of Existing Species and Their Habitats in the Bosphorus Area. Marine bio abs., 1: 112–023.
  127. ^ "Deniz Kirliliğini Önlemeye İlişkin Hedefler". İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011.
  128. ^ "İstanbul'da balıklar". Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi. II. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı.
  129. ^ "Why so many stray cats in Istanbul?". BBC News. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  130. ^ Brady, Tara. "How the street cats of Istanbul landed on their feet". The Irish Times. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  131. ^ "İstanbul'da istilacı yeşil papağan uyarısı: Sayıları 5-6 bini geçti, kent faunası bozulabilir". birgun.net (in Turkish). Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  132. ^ "Fed up with Istanbul traffic". 20 February 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
  133. ^ "Understanding Vehicular Pollution – AQI, Harmful Effects and How to Reduce It?". News18. 1 March 2019.
  134. ^ Kara Rapor 2020: Hava Kirliliği ve Sağlık Etkileri [Black Report 2020: Air Pollution and Health Effects] (Report) (in Turkish). Right to Clean Air Platform Turkey. August 2020.
  135. ^ Harvey, Fiona (17 August 2022). "Major cities blighted by nitrogen dioxide pollution, research finds | Air pollution". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  136. ^ "Istanbul tops 2024 global traffic congestion rankings - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 9 January 2025. Retrieved 16 March 2025.
  137. ^ "'Sea snot' outbreak off Turkish coast poses threat to marine life". Reuters. 1 June 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  138. ^ Çelik 1993, pp. 70, 169
  139. ^ Çelik 1993, p. 127
  140. ^ Moonan, Wendy (29 October 1999). "For Turks, Art to Mark 700th Year". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
  141. ^ Oxford Business Group 2009, p. 105.
  142. ^ a b c Istanbul Office Market General Overview: Third Quarter 2021 (PDF) (Report). Prop In. pp. 3, 9.
  143. ^ a b WCTR Society & Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō 2004, p. 281.
  144. ^ Karpat 1976, pp. 78–96
  145. ^ Yavuz, Ercan (8 June 2009). "Gov't launches plan to fight illegal construction". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  146. ISBN 978-0-415-32951-4
    . Retrieved 6 May 2013.
  147. ^ Bourque, Jessica (4 July 2012). "Poor but Proud Istanbul Neighborhood Faces Gentrification". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
  148. ^ Tait, Robert (22 July 2008). "Forced gentrification plan spells end for old Roma district in Istanbul". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
  149. ^ "New city construction to begin in six months". Hurriyet Daily News. 22 February 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
  150. ^ Boyar & Fleet 2010, p. 247
  151. ^ Taylor 2007, p. 241
  152. ^ "Water Supply Systems, Reservoirs, Charity and Free Fountains, Turkish Baths". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Archived from the original on 19 November 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  153. ^ Time Out Guides 2010, p. 212
  154. ^ a b c d e f g Chamber of Architects of Turkey 2006, pp. 80, 118
  155. ^ Labib Habachi, The Obelisks of Egypt, skyscrapers of the past, American University in Cairo Press, 1985, p.145-151.
  156. ^ E.A. Wallis Budge, Cleopatra's Needles and Other Egyptian Obelisks, The Religious Tract Society, London, 1926, reprinted 1990, p.160-165.
  157. ^ "Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Istanbul: Sultan Abdulaziz and the Beylerbeyi Palace", Filiz Yenişehirlioğlu, Islamic Art in the 19th Century: Tradition, Innovation, And Eclecticism, 65.
  158. ^ Istanbul Governor's official website – The Serpent Column. web page Archived 2 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  159. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8478-0615-7
    .
  160. ^ "Blue Mosque". bluemosque.co. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  161. ^ a b "Sinan, Ottoman architect". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 April 2024.
  162. ^ Freely 2000, p. 283
  163. ^ a b c Freely 2011
  164. ^
    ISBN 978-1-78076-852-6
    .
  165. ISBN 978-0-691-12326-4
    .
  166. ^ Çelik 1993, p. 159
  167. ^ Çelik 1993, pp. 133–34, 141
  168. ^ "Mevzuat Bilgi Sistemi". www.mevzuat.gov.tr. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  169. ^ "İBB Başkanı İmamoğlu: Sendikalı sayısı 80 bin kişiye ulaşmıştır". www.ntv.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  170. ISSN 1300-0845
    .
  171. ^ "Tanzimat'tan XXI. Yüzyıla İstanbul'un Yönetimi". istanbultarihi.ist. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  172. ISSN 1301-5737
    .
  173. ^ "TÜRK BELEDİYECİLİĞİNİN GELİŞİM SÜRECİ". www.mevzuatdergisi.com. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  174. ISSN 1304-8120
    .
  175. ^ Çelik 1993, pp. 42–48
  176. ^ Kapucu & Palabiyik 2008, p. 145
  177. ^ "Belediye Tarihçesi". İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi.
  178. ISSN 1301-1308
    .
  179. ^ "Hükümet, büyükşehir belediyelerinin UKOME'deki çoğunluk yetkisini elinden aldı". Independent Türkçe (in Turkish). 19 February 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  180. ISSN 2146-7226
    .
  181. ^ "İBB ve KİPTAŞ'ın İlçe Belediyeleri ile Yaptığı İş Birliği Protokollerinden Bir Yenisini Daha Avcılar Belediyesi İle İmzalandı!". kiptas.istanbul. Retrieved 7 March 2025.
  182. ^ "T.C. Tuzla Belediyesi Resmi Web Sitesi : Tuzla Belediyesi, İBB iş birliği ile ilçenin kronik sorunlarına çözüm üretiyor". www.tuzla.bel.tr. Retrieved 7 March 2025.
  183. ISSN 1301-0603
    .
  184. ISSN 2149-0732
    .
  185. ISSN 2636-8048
    .
  186. ^ "Erdoğan: 'İstanbul'da teklersek, Türkiye'de tökezleriz'". Tele1. 2 April 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  187. ^ Ingleby, Melvyn (14 June 2019). "A Turkish Opposition Leader Is Fighting Erdoğan With 'Radical Love'". The Atlantic. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  188. ^ Pitel, Laura (24 June 2019). "Erdoğan's defeat in Istanbul shows opposition's changing tactics". Financial Times. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  189. ^ Isil Sariyuce and Ivana Kottasová. "Istanbul election rerun set to be won by opposition, in blow to Erdogan". CNN.
  190. ^ "Seçim 2024". secim.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  191. ^ "Population of Istanbul in Turkey from 2007 to 2019". Statista.
  192. ^ "Address Based Population Registration System Results of 2010" (doc). Turkish Statistical Institute. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
  193. ^ Morris 2010, p. 113
  194. ^ Chandler 1987, pp. 463–505
  195. ^ a b "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2019". data.tuik.gov.tr. Istanbul, Turkey: Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu. 4 February 2020. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  196. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. The United Nations. 5 April 2012. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  197. ^ "File 11a: The 30 Largest Urban Agglomerations Ranked by Population Size at Each Point in Time, 1950–2035" (xls). World Urbanization Prospects, the 2018 Revision. The United Nations. 5 April 2012. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  198. ^ Turan 2010, p. 224
  199. ^ Kamp, Kristina (17 February 2010). "Starting Up in Turkey: Expats Getting Organized". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
  200. ^ "International Migration Statistics, 2019". data.tuik.gov.tr. Istanbul, Turkey: Türk İstatistik Kurumu. 17 July 2020. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  201. ^ Peace, Fergus (29 November 2020). "City stats: Istanbul versus Athens". Financial Times. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  202. ^ Murat, Sedat. "Doğum yerlerine göre İstanbul nüfusu ve iç göçler".
  203. ^ Şafak, Yeni (11 February 2021). "İstanbul'da en çok nereli var: İstanbul'da en çok hangi ilden vatandaş yaşıyor?". Yeni Şafak (in Turkish). Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  204. ^ a b c d e f "23 Haziran 2019 Sandık Analizi ve Seçmen Kümeleri" (PDF). KONDA.
  205. ^ Mustafa Mohamed Karadaghi (1995). Handbook of Kurdish Human Rights Watch, Inc: A Non-profit Humanitarian Organization. UN.
  206. ISBN 978-0-684-82726-1
    .
  207. ^ Masters & Ágoston 2009, pp. 520–21
  208. ISBN 978-1-4985-7522-5
    .
  209. ^ McKernan, Bethan (18 April 2020). "How Istanbul won back its crown as heart of the Muslim world". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
  210. ^ Lepeska, David (27 December 2013). "Istanbul: An Unlikely Refuge for Exiled Journalists". The Atlantic. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
  211. ^ Hubbard, Ben (14 April 2019). "Arab Exiles Sound Off Freely in Istanbul Even as Turkey Muffles Its Own Critics". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
  212. ^ "Why dissidents are gathering in Istanbul". The Economist. 11 October 2018. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
  213. ^ "Syrian migrants in Turkey face deadline to leave Istanbul". BBC News. 20 August 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  214. ^ "Number of Syrians in Turkey July 2023 – Refugees Association". multeciler.org.tr.
  215. ^ "Sözlük". Konda İnteraktif. Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  216. ^ Çelik 1993, p. 38
  217. ^ a b Magra, Iliana (5 November 2020). "Greeks in Istanbul keeping close eye on developments". Ekathimerini. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  218. ^ Turay, Anna. "Tarihte Ermeniler". Bolsohays: Istanbul Armenians. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
  219. ^ Grigoryan, Iliana (2018). "Armenian Labor Migrants in Istanbul: Reality Check" (PDF). Migration Research Center at Koç University. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  220. ^ "Assyrian community thrives again in southeastern Turkey". Daily Sabah. 10 January 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
  221. ISBN 978-1-5381-0224-4
    .
  222. ^ Levantine historical heritage
  223. ^ Interview with Giovanni Scognamillo
  224. ^
    ISBN 978-3-87997-077-3
    .
  225. ^
    ISBN 978-965-226-099-4
    .
  226. ISBN 978-1-61719-909-7
    .
  227. ISBN 978-1-4422-4141-1
    .
  228. ^ "Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour - Jewish Virtual Library". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  229. ^ "Why Jews in Terror-stricken Turkey Aren't Fleeing to Israel Yet". Haaretz. haaretz.com. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  230. ^ Jewish Population by country 2021
  231. ^
    S2CID 240715488
    . Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  232. ^ "Regions and Cities in Turkey at a Glance in 2018" (PDF). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD Publishing. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  233. ^ "Turkey trade statistics". World Bank. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  234. ^ Oxford Business Group 2009, p. 112.
  235. ^ a b Jones, Sam (27 April 2011). "Istanbul's new Bosphorus canal 'to surpass Suez or Panama". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  236. ^ a b "Maritime intelligence on Ambarlı port". Lloyd's List Maritime Intelligence. Lloyd's Insurance Services. 24 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  237. ^ a b "The Imperial Ottoman Bank Patrimoines Partagés تراث مشترك". heritage.bnf.fr. Bibliothèques d'Orient. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  238. ^ "nBorsa Istanbul: A Story of Transformation" (PDF). borsaistanbul.com. Borsa Istanbul. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  239. ^ Tuba Ongun (17 April 2023). "Istanbul Finance Center opens with inauguration of banking section". Anadolu Agency.
  240. ^ "Istanbul Financial Center: Properties". ifm.gov.tr. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  241. ^ "Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey". skyscraperpage.com. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  242. ^ "Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey". skyscrapercenter.com. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  243. ^ "Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Campus Phase I-II". limak.com.tr. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  244. ^ "Metropol İstanbul". gapinsaat.com. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
  245. ^ "Image of Metropol Istanbul Towers". aremas.net. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  246. ^ "Skyland Istanbul".
  247. ^ Emporis: Sapphire[usurped]
  248. ^ "Top city destinations by overnight visitors". Statista. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  249. ^ "Turkey expects cruise tourism boom in 2022". Hürriyet. 6 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  250. ^ "Panoramic view of the modern skyline of Istanbul's European side, with the skyscrapers of Levent at the center and the Bosphorus Bridge (1973) at right". Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  251. ^ "A view of the skyscrapers in Levent from Sporcular Park". Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  252. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, p. 8
  253. ^ Reisman 2006, p. 88
  254. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, pp. 2–4
  255. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, pp. 221–23
  256. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, pp. 223–24
  257. ^ a b "İstanbul – Archaeology Museum". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  258. ^ Hansen, Suzy (10 February 2012). "The Istanbul Art-Boom Bubble". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  259. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, pp. 130–31
  260. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, pp. 133–34
  261. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, p. 146
  262. ^ Göktürk, Soysal & Türeli 2010, p. 165
  263. ^ Nikitin, Nikolaj (6 March 2012). "Golden Age for Turkish Cinema". Credit-Suisse. Archived from the original on 17 December 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
  264. ^ Köksal 2012, pp. 24–25
  265. ^ "History". The Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
  266. ^ Gibbons, Fiachra (21 September 2011). "10 of the Best Exhibitions at the Istanbul Biennial". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
  267. ^ Emeksiz, İpek (3 September 2010). "Abdi İpekçi Avenue to be new Champs Elysee". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  268. ^ "Shopping in Singapore is Better than Paris". CNN. 6 January 2012. Archived from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  269. ^ Tomasetti, Kathryn; Rutherford, Tristan (23 March 2012). "A Big Night Out in Istanbul – And a Big Breakfast the Morning After". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  270. ISBN 978-0-470-74319-5
    .
  271. ^ a b Köse 2009, pp. 91–92
  272. ^ Taşan-Kok 2004, p. 166
  273. ^ Freely 2011, p. 429
  274. ^ Keyder 1999, p. 34
  275. ^ Kugel, Seth (17 July 2011). "The $100 Istanbul Weekend". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  276. ^ Knieling & Othengrafen 2009, pp. 228–34
  277. ^ Schäfers, Marlene (26 July 2008). "Managing the Difficult Balance Between Tourism and Authenticity". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  278. ^ Schillinger, Liesl (8 July 2011). "A Turkish Idyll Lost in Time". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  279. ^ "Turkey's LGBT community draws hope from Harvey Milk". Al Monitor. 17 June 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
  280. ^ "Besiktas: The Black Eagles of the Bosporus". FIFA. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
  281. RSSSF
    . Retrieved 31 May 2018.
  282. ^ a b "Galatasaray: The Lions of the Bosporus". FIFA. Archived from the original on 16 January 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  283. ^ "UEFA Champions League 2007/08 – History – Fenerbahçe". The Union of European Football Associations. 8 October 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  284. ^ "Puan Durumu: 2015–2016 Sezonu 30. Hafta" [League Table: 2015–16 Season, Round 30] (in Turkish). Turkish Basketball Super League. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  285. ^ "List of Certified Athletics Facilities". The International Association of Athletics Federations. 1 January 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2013.
  286. ^ "Istanbul to host 2020 Champions League final, Uefa confirms". The Independent. 24 May 2018. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
  287. ^ "2008/09: Pitmen strike gold in Istanbul". The Union of European Football Associations. 20 May 2009. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  288. ^ Aktaş, İsmail (14 March 2012). "Aşçıoğlu Sues Partners in Joint Project Over Ali Sami Yen Land". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  289. ^ "Regulations of the UEFA European Football Championship 2010–12" (PDF). The Union of European Football Associations. p. 14. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  290. ^ "Regulations of the UEFA Europa League 2010/11" (PDF). The Union of European Football Associations. p. 17. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  291. ^ "Türk Telekom Arena Istanbul". 'asp' Architekten. Archived from the original on 26 April 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  292. ^ a b "Istanbul – Arenas". FIBA. 2010. Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  293. ^ "Fenerbahce Ulker's new home, Ulker Sports Arena, opens". Euroleague Basketball. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  294. ^ Wilson, Stephen (2 September 2011). "2020 Olympics: Six cities lodge bids for the games". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  295. ^ Richards, Giles (22 April 2011). "Turkey Grand Prix Heads for the Scrapyard Over $26m Price Tag". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  296. ^ "Turkish Grand Prix 2020 (12-15 November 2020)". formula1.com. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  297. ^ "2021 F1 calendar reshuffled as Turkey drops off and extra Austria race added". Formula1.com. 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
  298. ^ "Turkish Grand Prix to rejoin 2021 Formula 1 calendar". formula1.com. 25 June 2021.
  299. ^ "Events" (PDF). FIA World Touring Car Championship. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  300. ^ "The Circuits". European Le Mans Series. 2012. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  301. ^ "2000 Race Calendar". F1 Powerboat World Championship. 2000. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  302. ^ "Powerboat P1 – 2009 World Championship – Istanbul, Turkey". Supersport. 21 June 2009. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021.
  303. ^ "2012 Yarış Programı ve Genel Yarış Talimatı" [2012 Race Schedule and General Sailing Instructions] (in Turkish). The Istanbul Sailing Club. 2012. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  304. ^ Turkish Daily News (23 August 2008). "Sailing Week Starts in Istanbul". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  305. ^ "About the Tower". camlicakule.istanbul. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  306. ^ Brummett 2000, pp. 11, 35, 385–86
  307. ^ a b c d "Country Profile: Turkey" (PDF). The Library of Congress Federal Research Division. August 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
  308. ^ "Tiraj". Medyatava (in Turkish). 25 December 2016. Archived from the original on 28 March 2018. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
  309. ^ Vercihan Ziflioğlu (17 June 2010). "Young editor to take helm of Turkish-Armenian weekly". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
  310. ^ a b "TRT – Radio". The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
  311. ^ Time Out Guides 2010, p. 224
  312. ^ "TRT – Television". The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
  313. ^ Norris 2010, p. 184
  314. ^ "Chris Morris". BBC. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
  315. ^ a b "Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı İstanbul Eğitim İstatistikleri Açıklandı". istanbul.gov.tr. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  316. ^ Şafak, Yeni. "İstanbul'daki en iyi liseler hangileri: 2022 İstanbul Anadolu Liseleri, Fen Liseleri, İmam Hatip ve Teknik Liseleri taban puanları ve yüzdelik dilimleri belli oldu mu?". Yeni Şafak (in Turkish). Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  317. ^
    ISBN 978-1-5381-0224-4
    .
  318. ^ "Türkiye'de kaç yabancı lise var? Yasaktan neden muaflar?". Gazete İlk Sayfa (in Turkish). 15 June 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  319. ^ "Azınlık Okulları Sorunlarla Açılıyor". bianet.org.
  320. ^ Aydınlık (7 March 2023). "İstanbul'un en iyi liseleri açıklandı! İşte 2023 lise taban puanları". aydinlik.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  321. ^ "The City of Universities: Istanbul". en.istanbul.gov.tr. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  322. ISBN 978-1-5381-0224-4
    .
  323. ^ a b "Istanbul and the History of Water in Istanbul". Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2006.
  324. ^ Tigrek & Kibaroğlu 2011, pp. 33–34
  325. ^ "İSKİ Administration". Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
  326. ^ a b c "Silahtarağa Power Plant". SantralIstanbul. Archived from the original on 30 July 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
  327. ^ a b "Short History of Electrical Energy in Turkey". Turkish Electricity Transmission Company. 2001. Archived from the original on 28 November 2009. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  328. ^ a b c d "About Us | Brief History". The Post and Telegraph Organization. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
  329. ^ Masters & Ágoston 2009, p. 557
  330. ^ "Central Post Office". Emporis. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
  331. ^ Shaw & Shaw 1977, p. 230
  332. ^ a b "About Türk Telekom: History". Türk Telekom. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
  333. ^ Sanal 2011, p. 85
  334. ^ Oxford Business Group 2009, p. 197.
  335. ^ Oxford Business Group 2009, p. 198.
  336. ^ Connell 2010, pp. 52–53
  337. ^ Papathanassis 2011, p. 63
  338. ^ "YILLAR İTİBARIYLA YAPIMI TAMAMLANMIŞ OTOYOLLAR (2024)" (PDF). Kgm.gov.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 6 February 2025.
  339. ^ "Lengths of State Highways according to surface types by Provinces (Km)(2024)" (PDF). Kgm.gov.tr. Retrieved 6 February 2025.
  340. ^ a b c "Otoyollar Istanbul (2024)". Kgm.gov.tr. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
  341. ^ "Istanbul Overview" (Map). Google Maps. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  342. ^ Efe & Cürebal 2011, p. 720
  343. ^ "3rd Bosphorus bridge opening ceremony". TRT World. 25 August 2016. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016.
  344. ^ "Güzergah Harita Uygulaması". ysskoprusuveotoyolu.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 January 2025.
  345. ^ ERM Group (Germany and UK) and ELC-Group (Istanbul) (January 2011). "Volume I: Non Technical Summary (NTS)" (PDF). Eurasia Tunnel Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. The European Investment Bank. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
  346. ^ Letsch, Constanze (8 June 2012). "Plan for New Bosphorus Bridge Sparks Row Over Future of Istanbul". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
  347. ^ "Istanbul's $1.3BN Eurasia Tunnel prepares to open". Anadolu Agency. 19 December 2016.
  348. ^ "Emissions Map - Climate TRACE". climatetrace.org. Archived from the original on 12 November 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
  349. ^ Songün, Sevim (16 July 2010). "Istanbul Commuters Skeptical of Transit Change". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  350. ^ a b c "Chronological History of IETT" (PDF). Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  351. ^ "T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Tramvay Hattı" [T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Tram Line] (in Turkish). İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation). Archived from the original on 18 April 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  352. ^ "Tunnel". Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012. (Note: It is apparent this is a machine translation of the original.)
  353. ^ "F1 Taksim–Kabataş Füniküler Hattı" [F1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Funicular Line] (in Turkish). İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation). Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  354. ^ "Raylı Sistemler" [Rail Systems] (in Turkish). İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation). Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  355. ^ "Ağ Haritaları" [Network Maps] (in Turkish). İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation). Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  356. ^ "Turkey: Connecting Continents". Economic Updates. Oxford Business Group. 7 March 2012. Archived from the original on 26 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  357. ^ "GEBZE-HALKALI BANLİYÖ HATTI 2018 SONUNDA HİZMETE GİRİYOR" (in Turkish). Marmaray. 18 November 2018. Archived from the original on 12 March 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  358. ^ "Public Transportation in Istanbul". Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  359. ^ "Metrobus". Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management. Archived from the original on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  360. ^ ."Sehir Hatlari". Retrieved 5 April 2024.
  361. ^ "İstanbul Deniz Otobüsleri - Online Bilet Al". www.ido.com.tr. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
  362. ^ "Liman Hizmetleri" [Port Services] (in Turkish). Turkey Maritime Organization. 10 February 2011. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
  363. ^ "Orient Express". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 December 2023.
  364. ^ "Bölgesel Yolcu Trenleri" [Regional Passenger Trains] (in Turkish). Turkish State Railways. Archived from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  365. ^ Keenan, Steve (22 June 2012). "How Your Greek Summer Holiday Can Help Save Greece". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
  366. ^ "Haydarpasa Train Station". Emporis. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  367. ^ Head, Jonathan (16 February 2010). "Iraq – Turkey railway link re-opens". BBC. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  368. ^ "Transports to Middle-Eastern Countries". Turkish National Railways. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  369. ^ a b Akay, Latifa (5 February 2012). "2012 Sees End of Line for Haydarpaşa Station". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 16 September 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  370. ^ "İstanbul Otogarı" [Istanbul Bus Station] (in Turkish). Avrasya Terminal İşletmeleri A.Ş. (Eurasian Terminal Management, Inc.). Archived from the original on 20 April 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  371. ^ "Eurolines Germany–Deutsche Touring GmbH–Europabus". Touring. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
  372. ^ "Last flight leaves Ataturk as Istanbul switches airports". Reuters. 6 April 2019.
  373. ^ "Turkish Airlines relocates to new Istanbul Airport". ATWOnline. 5 April 2019.
  374. ^ "Turkish Airlines is switching to a new Istanbul airport – all in 45 hours". The Guardian. 6 April 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2019. The opening date has been pushed back three times, but authorities insist that the main terminal building and two runways will be fully operational by Sunday, in what critics say it is a rushed and dangerous attempt to stay on schedule.
  375. ^ Ay, Hasan. "Havalimanı değil zafer anıtı". sabah.com.tr. Sabah. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
  376. ^ Strauss, Delphine (25 November 2009). "Sabiha Gökçen: New Terminal Lands on Time and Budget". The Financial Times. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
  377. ^ "Yolcu Trafiği (Gelen-Giden)" [Passenger Traffic (Incoming-Outgoing)] (in Turkish). General Directorate of State Airports Authority. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  378. ^ "Sabiha Gökçen Named World's Fastest Growing Airport". Today's Zaman. 18 August 2011. Archived from the original on 16 September 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
  379. ^ a b "Preliminary 2013 World Airport Traffic and Rankings". Airports Council International. 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2014.

Bibliography
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istanbul&oldid=1280750546"