Jacobin (politics)
Part of Radicalism |
A Jacobin (French pronunciation:
The terms Jacobin and Jacobinism have been used in a variety of senses. Prior to 1793, the terms were used by contemporaries to describe the politics of Jacobins in the congresses of 1789 through 1792. With the ascendancy of
In the French Revolution
The Jacobin Club was one of several organizations that grew out of the French Revolution and it was distinguished for its left-wing, revolutionary politics.[8][9] Because of this, the Jacobins, unlike other sects such as the Girondins (who were originally part of the Jacobins, but branched off), were closely allied to the sans-culottes, who were a popular force of working-class Parisians that played a pivotal role in the development of the revolution.
The Jacobins had a significant presence in the National Convention; they were dubbed "the mountain" or Montagnards for their seats in the uppermost part of the chamber. Eventually, the Revolution coalesced around The Mountain's power, with the help of the insurrections of the sans-culottes, and, led by Robespierre, the Jacobins established a revolutionary dictatorship, or the joint domination of the Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security.
The Jacobins were known for creating a strong government that could deal with the needs of war, economic chaos, as well as internal rebellion (such as the
The Jacobins supported the rights of property, but represented a much more middle-class position than the government that succeeded them in Thermidor.
They favored free trade and a market economy much like the Girondists, but their relationship to the people made them more willing to adopt interventionist economic policies.
Another tenet of Jacobinism is a secularism that includes the elimination of existing religions in favor of one run by the state (i.e., the cults of Reason and the Supreme Being).[13][14]
Jacobinism was as an ideology thus developed and implemented during the French Revolution of 1789. In the words of François Furet, in Penser la révolution française (quoted by Hoel in Introduction au Jacobinisme...), "Jacobinism is both an ideology and a power: a system of representations and a system of action." ("le jacobinisme est à la fois une idéologie et un pouvoir : un système de représentations et un système d'action"). Its political goals were largely achieved later during France's Third Republic.[15]
France
Jacobinism did not end with the Jacobins. The Robespierrist
Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx called the Conspiracy of Equals "the first appearance of a truly active Communist party."[21][20] Leon Trotsky echoed these sentiments, stating that the foundation of the Communist International marked a "carrying on in direct succession the heroic endeavours and martyrdom of a long line of revolutionary generations from Babeuf."[22]
Himself a Robespierrist,[23] Buonaroti went on to write Observations sur Maximilien Robespierre in 1836, which extolled the Jacobin leader as a legend and hero. His portrayal of Robespierre as a model for socialist revolutionaries greatly influenced young socialists and republicans, such as Albert Laponneraye.[24]
The 19th century
Various French left-wing parties would claim to be the "true heirs" to the French Revolution and the 1871
On 4 October 1919, Alexandre Varenne founded the socialist daily La Montagne, Quotidien de la Démocratie Socialiste du Center.[33] The title was selected to reflect its alignment with the ideas of the Montagnards.[33]
In the 1930s, the Popular Front coalition included the French Communist Party or Parti communiste français (PCF), who along with portions of the alliance's socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party increasingly emphasized patriotism.[34] The PCF were characterized as "New Jacobins", and their leader Maurice Thorez as a "Stalinist Jacobin".[34]
On the French right, the nazi-collaborating founder of Neosocialism Marcel Déat was known to be inspired by Jacobin politics.[35]
India
In 1794, Tipu Sultan founded the Jacobin Club of Mysore with the support of French Republican officers and declared himself "Citizen Tipoo".[36] In the subsequent Fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799 against Tipu, the British forced the surrender of French military personnel mobilized by François Ripaud, citing their "most virulent principles of Jacobinism".[37] One historian argued that Britain's East India Company fabricated the club's existence to justify British military intervention.[38]
Italy
Blanquism had a notable influence on Benito Mussolini who founded fascism as an outgrowth of revolutionary socialism.[39] He claimed he "introduced into Italian socialism something of (Henri) Bergson mixed with much of Blanqui," including Blanqui's nationalism, the idea of rule by a dominant minority and use of violence.[25] However, Mussolini dispensed with Blanquism's links to the Enlightenment and communism and instead stated, fascism is "opposed to all individualistic abstractions based on eighteenth century materialism; and it is opposed to all Jacobinistic utopias and innovations."[25][40] The masthead of his newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia carried quotes from Blanqui ("Whoever has steel has bread") and Napoleon Bonaparte ("The Revolution is an idea which has found bayonets!").[41] Leon Trotsky called fascism in a sense "a caricature of Jacobinism".[42]
Poland
King Stanisław II August was enamored with the American Constitution, the ideals of the Gironde of 1790–1792, and the office of Roi Citoyen ("Citizen King").[43][44] He helped develop the 1791 Polish Constitution which embraced social reforms guaranteeing "the freedom, property and equality of every citizen."[43] Its ratification led some Society of the Friends of the Constitution chapters to endorse the King and his Rzeczypospolita and helped shape the French constitution adopted later that year.[43][45]
While the Constitutionalists had contacts with Jacobin Clubs, they were expressly not Jacobins.[46] However prior to the 1792 war that crushed the republic, Russian Empress Catherine the Great claimed the constitution was the work of the Jacobins and that she would be "fighting Jacobinism in Poland" and "the Jacobins of Warsaw".[37][43][46]
Russia and Soviet Union
The 1870s saw the emergence of the "
In the early 20th Century, Bolshevism and Jacobinism were linked.[49] Russia's notion of the French Revolution permeated educated society and was reflected in speeches and writings of leaders, including Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin.[50][51] They modeled their revolution after the Jacobins and the Terror with Trotsky even envisioning a trial for Nicholas II akin to that for Louis XVI.[52] Lenin regarded the execution of the former tsar and his immediate family as necessary, highlighting the precedent set in the French Revolution.[53] At the same time, the Bolsheviks consciously tried to avoid the mistakes they saw made by the French revolutionaries.[52]
Lenin referred to Robespierre as a "Bolshevik avant la lettre" and erected a statue to him.[54][55] Other statues were planned or erected of other prominent members of the Terror as well as Babeuf.[56] The Voskresenskaya Embankment in St. Petersburg was also renamed Naberezhnaya Robespera for the French leader in 1923; it was returned to its original name in 2014.[57]
Like
United Kingdom
The conventionalized scrawny, French revolutionary sans-culottes Jacobin, was developed from about 1790 by British satirical artists James Gillray, Thomas Rowlandson and George Cruikshank. It was commonly contrasted with the stolid stocky conservative and well-meaning John Bull, dressed like an English country squire. C. L. R. James also used the term to refer to revolutionaries during the Haitian Revolution in his book The Black Jacobins.
The London Corresponding Society founded in 1792 was partly modeled on the Jacobins to pressure the government in a law-abiding manner for democratic reform.[66] Scottish chapters of the Societies of the Friends of the People pressed for parliamentary reform at the 1792 Scottish Convention in Edinburgh using explicit imitations of the Jacobins.[66]
Overall, after 1793 with the sidelining of the Girondins and the Terror, "Jacobin" became a pejorative for
Welsh Jacobins include William Jones, a radical patriot who was a keen disciple of Voltaire. Rather than preaching revolution, Jones believed that an exodus from Wales was required and that a new Welsh colony should be founded in the United States.[69]
The
Austria
In the correspondence of Austrian statesman and diplomat
United States
Federalists often characterized
In modern American politics, the term Jacobin is often used to describe extremists of any party who demand ideological purity.[77]
Evidencing the antagonistic relationship between the press and insurgent
In 2010 an American left-wing
On 27 May 2010 issue of The New York Review of Books, Columbia university political science and humanities professor and self-described liberal[85] Mark Lilla analyzed three recent books dealing with American political party discontent in a review titled "The Tea Party Jacobins".[86] On the other side, historian Victor Davis Hanson likened the rise and policies of leftists in the Democratic Party in 2019 to the Jacobins and Jacobinism.[87]
Influence
The political
Jacobin populism and complete structural destruction of the old order led to an increasingly revolutionary spirit throughout Europe and such changes would contribute to new political foundations. It also informed new political ideologies. For instance in France,
Leftist organizations would take different elements from Jacobin's core foundation. Anarchists took influence from the Jacobins use of
See also
Further reading
- Geneviève Rousselière. 2021. "Can Popular Sovereignty Be Represented? Jacobinism from Radical Democracy to Populism." American Journal of Political Science.
References
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The semantic elasticity of the term in late twentieth-century French politics attests to the work of time. 'Jacobinism' or 'Jacobin' can now refer to a wide range of predilections: indivisible national sovereignty, a state role in the transformation of society, centralization of the government and bureaucracy, equality among citizens guaranteed by uniformity of the law, regeneration through education in republican schools, or simply an anxious concern for national independence. This vague range of meanings is still dominated, however, by the central figure of a sovereign and indivisible public authority with power over civil society [...].
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After 1793 'Girondin' and 'Jacobin' increasingly became keywords in the period's culture wars [...] Conservative publicists inflated 'Jacobin' into an all-purpose insult or epithet used to tar all progressive ideas as dangerously subversive
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The makers of the new conservatism's revolution will put the press to the guillotine, too, if the fervor of the demonstration was any guide to their mood.
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