Jagannath

Part of a series on
Vaishnavism
Supreme deity Vishnu / Krishna / Rama
Important deities Dashavatara Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Parasurama Rama Balarama Krishna Buddha Kalki Other forms Dhanvantari Guruvayurappan Hayagriva Jagannath Mohini Nara-Narayana Prithu Shrinathji Venkateshvara Vithoba Consorts Lakshmi Bhumi Sita Radha Rukmini Alamelu Related Garuda Hanuman Shesha Shasta
Holy scriptures Vedas Upanishads Vaikhanasa Pancharatra Bhagavad Gita Mahabharata Ramayana Harivamsa Divya Prabandha Gita Govinda Puranas Vishnu Bhagavata Naradiya Garuda Padma Agni
Sampradayas Sri (Vishishtadvaita ) Rudra (Śuddhādvaita) Dvaitadvaita ) Dvaita)), Acintyabhedabheda ) Others Ekasarana Dharma Mahanubhava Pranami Radha Vallabha Ramsnehi Sant Mat Swaminarayan Vaishnava-Sahajiya Warkari
Teachers—acharyas Chaitanya Chakradhara Dadu Dayal Harivansh Jayatirtha Jiva Goswami Jñāneśvara Kabir Madhavdev Madhvacharya Manavala Mamunigal Namadeva Nammalvar Nathamuni Nimbarka Padmanabha Tirtha Pillai Lokacharya Purandara Dasa Raghuttama Tirtha Raghavendra Tirtha Ram Charan Ramananda Ramanuja Ravidas Satyanatha Tirtha Satyabhinava Tirtha Satyabodha Tirtha Satyadharma Tirtha Satyadhyana Tirtha Samarth Ramdas Sankardev Swaminarayan Sripadaraja Tukaram Tulsidas Vallabha Vedanta Desika Vidyapati Vishnuswami Viṭṭhalanātha Vyasatirtha Vadiraja Tirtha Yamunacharya
Related traditions Bhagavatism Vaikhanasas Pancharatra Tenkalai Vadakalai Munitraya Krishnaism Jagannathism Haridasa Sahajiya Baul Pushtimarg Gaudiya ISKCON Ramanandi Kapadi Balmiki Kabir panth Dadu panth Mahanam
v t e

Jagannatha (

The Jagannathism (a.k.a. Odia Vaishnavism) — the particular sector of Jagannath as a major deity — emerged in the Early Middle Ages^[12][13] and later became an independent state regional temple-centered tradition of Krishnaism/Vaishnavism.^[14]

The idol of Jagannath is a carved and decorated wooden stump with large round eyes and a symmetric face, and the idol has a conspicuous absence of hands or legs. The worship procedures, sacraments and rituals associated with Jagannath are syncretic and include rites that are uncommon in Hinduism.^[15][16] Unusually, the icon is made of wood and replaced with a new one at regular intervals.

The origin and evolution of Jagannath worship is unclear.^[17] Some scholars interpret hymn 10.155.3 of the Rigveda as a possible origin, but others disagree and state that it is a syncretic/synthetic deity with tribal roots.^[15][17][18] The English word juggernaut was the rendition into English of "Jagannath" by early British in India, and came to mean a very large and unstoppable force from accounts of the famous Ratha Yatra processions in Puri.

Jagannath is considered a non-sectarian deity.

Jagannath is a Sanskrit word, compounded of jagat meaning "universe" and nātha meaning "Master" or "Lord". Thus, Jagannath means "lord of the universe".^[26][27]

In the Odia language, Jagannath is linked to other names, such as Jagā (ଜଗା) or Jagabandhu (ଜଗବନ୍ଧୁ) ("Friend of the Universe"). Both names derive from Jagannath. Further, on the basis of the physical appearance of the deity, names like Kalia (କାଳିଆ) ("The Black-coloured Lord", but which can also mean "the Timely One"), Darubrahman (ଦାରୁବ୍ରହ୍ମ) ("The Sacred Wood-Riddle"), Dāruēdebatā (ଦାରୁ ଦେବତା "The wooden god"), Chakā ākhi (ଚକା ଆଖି) or Chakānayan (ଚକା ନୟନ "With round eyes"), Cakāḍōḷā (ଚକା ଡୋଳା "with round pupils") are also in vogue.^[29][30][31]

According to Dina Krishna Joshi, the word may have origins in the tribal word Kittung of the Sora people (Savaras). This hypothesis states that the Vedic people as they settled into tribal regions adopted the tribal words and called the deity Jagannath.^[32] According to O.M. Starza, this is unlikely because Kittung is phonetically unrelated, and the Kittung tribal deity is produced from burnt wood and looks very different from Jagannath.^[33]

Iconography

Two versions of Jagannath iconography

The icon of Jagannath in his temples is a brightly painted, rough-hewn log of

When shown with Balabhadra and Subhadra, he is identifiable from his circular eyes compared to the oval or almond shape of the other two abstract icons. Further, his icon is dark, while Balabhadra's face is white, and Subhadra's icon is yellow. The third difference is the flat head of Jagannath icon, compared to semi-circular carved heads of the other two.^{[38][note 1]} They are accompanied by the Sudarshana Chakra, the iconic weapon of Vishnu. It is approximately the same height as Balabhadra, is red in colour, carved from a wooden pillar and clothed, unlike its traditional representation as a chakra in other Vishnu temples.^[39] Jagannath iconography, when he is depicted without companions, shows only his face, neither arms nor torso. This form is sometimes called Patita Pavana,^[40] or Dadhi Vaman.^[41]

The murtis of Jagannath, Balabhadra, Subhadra and Sudarshana Chakra are made of neem wood.^[42] Neem wood is chosen because the Bhavishya Purana declares it to be the most auspicious wood from which to make Vishnu murtis.^[37] The idol of Shri Jagannatha, Shree Balabhadra, Maa Subhadra and Sri Sudarshana is re-painted every week in the Shri Mandira or Shree Jagannatha Temple, Puri. It is replaced with a newly carved image every 12 or 19 years approximately, or more precisely according to the luni-solar Hindu calendar when its month of Asadha occurs twice in the same year.^[43]

Attributes

In the Jagannath tradition (Odia Vaishnavism), Jagannath is most frequently identified with an abstract form of Krishna as the supreme deity.^[6][7][44]

Jagannath is considered as equivalent to the Hindu metaphysical concepts of Brahman/Para Brahman and Purushottama/Shunya Purusha, wherein he then is the Avatarī, i.e., the cause and equivalence of all avatars and the infinite existence in space and time.^{[1][2][3][45][4][46]} According to author Dipti Ray in Prataparudra Deva, the Suryavamsi King of Odisha:

In Prataparudradeva's time Odia poets accepted

Vaishnavite Sakhas ["Comrades"] of Orissa during Prataparudradeva's time expounded in their works the idea that Jagannath (Purushottama) is Purna Brahman from whom other Avataras like Rama, Krishna, etc., took their birth for lilas in this universe and at the end would merge in the self of Purna Brahman.

— Dipti Ray^[5]

In the Jagannath tradition, he has the attributes of all the avatars of Krishna/Vishnu. This belief is celebrated by dressing him and worshipping him as different avatars on special occasions.[47] The Puranas relate that the Narasimha Avatar of Vishnu appeared from a wooden pillar. It is therefore believed that Jagannath is worshipped as a wooden murti or Daru Brahma with the Shri Narasimha hymn dedicated to the Narasimha Avatar.^[48] Every year in the month of Bhadra, Jagannath is dressed and decorated in the form of the Vamana avatar of Vishnu.^[46] Jagannath appeared in the form of Rama, another avatar of Vishnu, to Tulsidas, who worshipped him as Rama and called him Raghunath during his visit to Puri in the 16th century.^[49][50]

Sometimes one regards him as one of the avatars (incarnations) of Krishna (i.e., Buddha-Jagannath) or Vishnu (i.e., Vamana).^[8][9][51] His name does not appear in the traditional Dashavatara (ten avatars) of Vishnu,^[52] though in certain Odia literature, Jagannath has been treated as the avatar of Krishna, as a substitute for or the equivalent of the avatar Buddha from Dashavatara.^[8][45]

Tantric deity

Outside Vaishnava tradition, Jagannath is considered the epitome of Tantric worship.^[53] The symmetry in iconography, the use of mandalas and geometric patterns in its rites support the tantric connection proposal.^[54]

Jagannath is venerated as

In the Skanda Purana, by the time Vidyapati returned to inform the king of the site of the shrine, a great storm had buried the image of Nilamadhava under the sand. Despite his best attempts, the king was unable to locate the image. Upon the counsel of the sage divinity Narada, Indradyumna constructed a new temple, and performed a thousand ashvamedha yajnas at the site. Receiving guidance in the form of a divine dream, a great tree floating in the sea was felled and used to create the three wooden images of the temple, those of Jagannatha, Balarama, and Subhadra. The king travelled to Brahmaloka to invite Brahma to inaugurate the temple. With the passage of time, a king named Gala claimed to have been the temple's real architect, but with the return of Indradyumna to earth, he withdrew this claim. After Brahma had inaugurated the temple, Indradyumna returned to Brahmaloka, entrusting the upkeep of the site to Gala.^[66][67]

Vedic origin of Jagannath

In hymn 10.155 of the

According to Bijoy Misra, Puri natives do call Jagannatha as Purushottama, consider driftwood a savior symbol, and later Hindu texts of the region describe the Supreme Being as ever present in everything, pervasive in all animate and inanimate things. Therefore, while the Vedic connection is subject to interpretation, the overlap in the ideas exist.[69]

Buddhist origins

Theories suggesting

Some scholars argue that evidences of Jagannatha's Buddhist nature are found from Medieval Odia Literature. Many medieval Odia poets suggest to their readers, that they wrote their books on the commands of a formless god-like personality, identifying the Buddhist principles of Sunya (The great void) and Alekha (The formless one) with Jagannath himself. The idols of Jagannath triad are not anthropomorphic like hindu idols, but instead are stumps of wood with crude symbolic facial features and stumpy obtrusions for limbs.[103]

Odia poet Sarala Dasa of 15th century in his Mahabharata describes Jagannatha as Buddha:

He remains in the throne inside the temple, holding the Conch and Discuss in the form of Buddha.^{[note 3]}

Salute thee Sri Jagannath the revered One whose domain is the Blue Hills, he sits pretty as Sri Buddha there in the Blue Cavern.^{[note 4]}

— Sarala Dasa^{[104][105][note 5][note 6]}

Jain origins

Pandit Nilakantha Das suggested that Jagannath was a deity of

According to Annirudh Das, the original Jagannath deity was influenced by Jainism and is none other than the Jina of Kalinga taken to Magadha by Mahapadma Nanda.^[109] The theory of Jain origins is supported by the Jain Hathigumpha inscription. It mentions the worship of a relic memorial in Khandagiri-Udayagiri, on the Kumara hill. This location is stated to be same as the Jagannath temple site. However, states Starza, a Jain text mentions the Jagannath shrine was restored by Jains, but the authenticity and date of this text is unclear.^[110]

Another circumstantial evidence supporting the Jain origins proposal is the discovery of Jain images inside as well as near the massive Puri temple complex, including those carved into the walls. However, this could also be a later addition, or suggestive of tolerance, mutual support or close relationship between the Jains and the Hindus.^[110] According to Starza, the Jain influence on the Jagannath tradition is difficult to assess given the sketchy uncertain evidence, but nothing establishes that the Jagannath tradition has a Jain origin.^[110]

Vaishnava origins

The Vaishnava origin theories rely on the iconographic details and the typical presence of the triad of deities, something that Buddhist, Jaina and tribal origins theories have difficulty in coherently explaining. The colors, state the scholars of the Vaishnava origin theory, link to black-colored Krishna and white-colored Balarama. They add that the goddess originally was Ekanamsa (Durga of Shaiva-Shakti tradition, sister of Krishna through his foster family). She was later renamed to Shubhadra (Lakshmi) per Vaishnava terminology for the divine feminine.^[111]

The weakness of the Vaishnava origins theory is that it conflates two systems. While it is true that the Vaishnava Hindus in the eastern region of India worshipped the triad of Balarama, Ekanamsa and Krishna, it does not automatically prove that the Jagannath triad originated from the same. Some medieval texts, for example, present the Jagannath triad as Brahma (Subhadra), Shiva (Balarama) and Vishnu. The historic evidence and current practices suggest that the Jagannath tradition has a strong dedication to the Harihara (fusion Shiva-Vishnu) idea as well as tantric Shri Vidya practices, neither of which reconcile with the Vaishnava origins proposal.^[111] Further, in many Jagannath temples of central and eastern regions of India, the Shiva icons such as the Linga-yoni are reverentially incorporated, a fact that is difficult to explain given the assumed competition between the Shaivism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism.^[111]

Tribal origins

The tribal origin theories rely on circumstantial evidence and inferences such as the Jagannath icon is non-anthropomorphic and non-zoomorphic.^[32] The hereditary priests in the Jagannath tradition of Hinduism include non-Brahmin servitors, called Daitas, which may be an adopted grandfathered practice with tribal roots. The use of wood as a construction material for the Jagannath icons may also be a tribal practice that continued when Hindus adopted prior practices and merged them with their Vedic abstractions.^[37] The practice of using wood for making murti is unusual, as Hindu texts on the design and construction of images recommend stone or metal.^[69] The Daitas are Hindu, but believed to have been the ancient tribe of Sabaras (also spelled Soras). They continue to have special privileges such as being the first to view the new replacement images of Jagannath carved from wood approximately every 12 years. Further, this group is traditionally accepted to have the exclusive privilege of serving the principal meals and offerings to Jagannath and his associate deities.^[69][33]

According to Verrier Elwin, a convert to Hinduism, Jagannatha in a local legend was a tribal deity who was coopted by a Brahmin priest.^[112] The original tribal deity, states Elwin, was Kittung which too is made from wood. According to the Polish Indologist Olgierd M. Starza, this is an interesting parallel but a flawed one because the Kittung deity is produced by burning a piece of wood and too different in its specifics to be the origin of Jagannath.^[33] According to another proposal by Stella Kramrisch, log as a symbol of Anga pen deity is found in central Indian tribes and they have used it to represent features of the Hindu goddess Kali with it. However, states Starza, this theory is weak because the Anga pen features a bird or snake like attached head along with other details that make the tribal deity unlike the Jagannath.^[33]

Jagannath (left) may have roots in Narasimha^[113] (right, man-lion avatar of Vishnu who fights evil demon and ends religious persecution).^[114]

Some scholars such as Kulke and Tripathi have proposed tribal deities such as Stambhesveri or Kambhesvari to be a possible contributor to the Jagannath triad.^[113] However, according to Starza, these are not really tribal deities, but Shaiva deities adopted by tribes in eastern states of India. Yet another proposal for tribal origins is through the medieval era cult of Lakshmi-Narasimha.^[113] This hypothesis relies on the unusual flat head, curved mouth and large eyes of Jagannath, which may be an attempt to abstract an image of a lion's head ready to attack. While the tribal Narasimha theory is attractive states Starza, a weakness of this proposal is that the abstract Narasimha representation in the form does not appear similar to the images of Narasimha in nearby Konark and Kalinga temple artworks.^[113]

In contemporary Odisha, there are many Dadhivaman temples with a wooden pillar god, and this may be same as Jagannath.^[115]

Syncretic origins

According to H.S. Patnaik and others, Jagannath is a syncretic/synthetic deity that combined aspects of major faiths like

Balabhadra considered the elder brother of Jagannath is sometimes identified with and worshipped as Shiva.^[118] Subhadra now considered Jagannath's sister has also been considered as a deity who used to be Brahma.^[118][119] Finally the fourth deity, Sudarshana Chakra symbolizes the wheel of the sun's chariot, a syncretic absorption of the Saura (Surya-centric) tradition of Hinduism. The conglomerate of Jagannath, Balabhadra, Subhadra, and Sudarshana Chakra worshipped together on a common platform are called the Chaturdhamurti or the "four-fold form".^[120]

O.M. Starza states that the Jagannath Ratha Yatra may have evolved from the syncretism of procession rituals for Shiva lingas, Vaishnava pillars, and tribal folk festivities.

The Tantric texts claim Jagannath to their own, to be Bhairava, and his companion to be the same as goddess Vimala is the Shakti. The offerings of Jagannath becomes mahaprasad only after it is re-offered to goddess Vimala. Similarly, different Tantric features of yantras have been engraved on the Ratna vedi, where Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra are set up. The Kalika Purana depicts Jagannath as a Tantric deity.^[122] According to Avinash Patra, the rituals and special place accepted for non-Brahmin Daitas priests in Jagannath tradition, who co-exist and work together with Brahmin priests suggests that there was a synthesis of tribal and Brahmanical traditions.^[124]

According to the Jain version, the image of Jagannath (black colour) represents sunya, Subhadra symbolises creative energy and Balabhadra (white colour) represents the phenomenal universe. All these images have evolved from the Nila Madhava, the ancient Kalinga Jina. The "Sudarshana Chakra" is contended to be the Hindu name of the

In the words of the historian Jadunath Sarkar:^[125]

The diverse religions of Orissa in all ages have tended to gravitate towards and finally merged into the Jagannath worship, at least in theory.

Transformation from unitary icon to triad

The Madala Panji observes that Nila Madhava transformed into Jagannath and was worshipped alone as a unitary figure, not as the part of a triad. It is significant to note that the early epigraphic and literary sources refer only to a unitary deity Purushottama Jagannath.^[126] The Sanskrit play "Anargharaghava" composed by Murari mentioned only Purushottama Jagannath and his consort Lakshmi with no references to Blabhadra and Subhadra.^[126] The Dasgoba copper plated inscription dating to 1198 also mentions only Purushottama Jagannath in the context that the Puri temple had been originally built by Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga (1078–1147) for Vishnu and Lakshmi.^[126] These sources are silent on the existence of Balabhadra and Subhadra. Such state of affairs has led to arguments that Purushottama was the original deity and Balabhadra and Subhadra were subsequently drawn in as additions to a unitary figure and formed a triad.

During the rule of Anangabhima III [1211–1239], Balabhadra and Subhadra find the earliest known mention in the Pataleshwara inscription of 1237 CE.

Theology

The

The medieval era Odia scholars such as Ananta, Achyutananda and Chaitanya described the theology of Jagannath as the "personification of the Shunya, or the void", but not entirely in the form of Shunyata of Buddhism. They state Jagannath as "Shunya Brahma", or alternatively as "Nirguna Purusha" (or "abstract personified cosmos"). Vishnu avatars are descend from this Shunya Brahma into human form to keep dharma.[45]^[132]

In Hindu texts and traditions

Although Jagannath has been identified with other traditions in the past, He is now identified more with Vaishnava tradition.

Vaishnavite version

The Skanda Purana and

Everyone was anxious about the divine work, including King Indradyumna. After a fortnight of waiting, the king, anxious to see the deity, could not control his eagerness and visited the site where Vishwakarma was working. Soon enough, Vishwakarma became very upset and left the carving of the idol unfinished; the images were without hands and feet. The king was very perturbed by this development and appealed to Brahma for help. Brahma promised the King that the images which were carved would be deified as carved and would become famous. Following this promise, Indradyumna organized a function to formally deify the images and invited all gods to be present for the occasion. Brahma presided over the religions function as the chief priest and brought life (soul) to the image and fixed (opened) its eyes. This resulted in the images becoming famous and worshipped at Jagannath Puri in the well-known Jagannath Temple as a Kshetra (pilgrimage centre). It is, however, believed that the original images are in a pond near the temple.[134]

Stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata

According to Prabhat Nanda, the Valmiki Ramayana mentions Jagannath.^[135] Some believe that the mythical place where King Janak performed a yajna and tilled land to obtain Sita is the same as the area in which the Gundicha temple is situated in Puri, according to Suryanarayan Das.^[136] The Mahabharata, states Das, describes King Indradyumna's Ashvamedh Yajna and the advent of the four deities of the Jagannath cult.^[136]

Sarala Dasa Mahabharata version

Sarala Dasa, the great Odia poet of the 15th century while praising Jagannath as the saviour of mankind considered him both as a form of Buddha as well as a manifestation of Krishna.^[137]

Kanchi conquest

One of the most popular legends associated with Jagannath is that of Kanchi Avijana (or "Conquest of

Upon defeat, the Gajapati King Purushottam Deva returned and prayed to Jagannath, the God of land of

On the road, Jagannath and Balabhadra grew thirsty and chanced upon a milkmaid Manika, who gave them butter-milk/yogurt to quench their thirst. Instead of paying her dues, Balabhadra gave her a ring telling her to claim her dues from King Purushottam. Later, Purushottam Deva himself passed by with his army. At Adipur near

In the war between the army of Kalinga inspired by the Divine support of Jagannath and of the army of Kanchi, Purushottam Deva led his army to victory. King Purusottam brought back the Princess Padmavati of Kanchi to Puri. To avenge his humiliation, he ordered his minister to get the princess married to a sweeper.^[139] The minister waited for the annual Ratha Yatra when the King ceremonially sweeps Jagannath's chariot. He offered the princess in marriage to King Purusottam, calling the King a Royal sweeper of God. The King then married the Princess. The Gajapati King also brought back images of Uchchhishta Ganesh (Bhanda Ganesh or Kamada Ganesh) and enshrined them in the Kanchi Ganesh shrine at the Jagannath Temple in Puri.

This myth has been recounted by Mohanty.

In Odia literature, the Kanchi conquest (Kanchi Kaveri) has significant bearing, in medieval literature romanticized as the epic Kanchi Kaveri by Purushottama Dasa in the 17th century and a work by the same name by Maguni Dasa.^[143] The first Odia drama written by Ramashankar Ray, the father of Odia drama in 1880 is Kanchi Kaveri.^[144]

The Kanchi Kingdom has been identified as the historical Vijayanagar Kingdom. As per historical records, Gajapati Purushottam Deva's expedition towards Virupaksha Raya II's Kanchi (Vijayanagar) Kingdom started during 1476 with Govinda Bhanjha as commander-in-chief. According to J. P. Das, the historicity of Kanchi conquest event is not certain.^{[145][verification needed]}

Early Vaishnava traditions

Vaishnavism is considered a more recent tradition in Odisha, being historically traceable to the Early Middle Ages.^{[13][12][146]} Already, according to the Vishnudharma Purana (ca. 4th century), Krishna is woshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odra (Odisha).^[127]

Ramanuja, the great Vaishnav reformer, visited Puri between 1107 and 1111 converting the King Ananatavarman Chodaganga from Shaivism to Vaishnavism.^[147] At Puri he founded the Ramanuja Math for propagating Vaishnavism in Odisha. The Alarnatha Temple stands testimony to his stay in Odisha. Since the 12th century, under the influence of Ramanuja, Jagannath culture was increasingly identified with Vaishnavism.^[8]

Under the rule of the Eastern Gangas, Vaishnavism became the predominant faith in Odisha.^[148] Odia Vaishnavism gradually centred on Jagannath as the principal deity. Sectarian differences were eliminated by assimilating deities of Shaivism, Shaktism, and Buddhism in the Jagannath Pantheon.^[146] The Ganga Kings respected all the ten avatars of Vishnu, considering Jagannath as the cause of all the avatars.

The Vaishnava saint Nimbarkacharya visited Puri, establishing the Radhavallav Matha in 1268.^[147] The famous poet Jayadeva was a follower of Nimbaraka, with a focus on Radha and Krishna. Jayadev's composition Gita Govinda put a new emphasis on the concept of Radha and Krishna in East Indian Vaishnavism. And the Jagannath Temple, Puri became a place where for the first time the famous Krishnaite poem Gita Govinda was introduced into the liturgy.^[149] This idea soon became popular. Sarala Dasa in his adaptation of the Mahabharat thought of Jagannath as the universal being equating him with Buddha and Krishna. He considered Buddha-Jagannath as one of the avatars of Krishna.^[8] Sometimes Jagannath is venerated as Vamana, the avatar of Vishnu.^[9][150]

In the 16th century, the worship of

The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (bhakti) of Krishna, as Svayam Bhagavan or the Original Supreme Personality of Godhead.^[153]

Jagannath is widely revered in

Soon after its founding,

Vimala (Bimala) is worshipped as the presiding goddess of the Purushottama (Puri) Shakti Pitha by Shaktas.Jagannath, is worshipped as the Bhairava, traditionally always a form of Shiva. Jagannath-Vishnu equated with Shiva, is interpreted to convey the oneness of God. Also, in this regard, Vimala is also considered as Annapurna, the consort of Shiva.^[159] Conversely, Tantrics consider Jagannath as Shiva-Bhairava, rather than a form of Vishnu.^[160] While Lakshmi is the traditional (orthodox tradition) consort of Jagannath, Vimala is the Tantric (heterodox) consort.^[161] Vimala is also considered the guardian goddess of the temple complex, with Jagannath as the presiding god.^[162]

Jagannath is considered the combination of 5 Gods Vishnu, Shiva, Surya, Ganesh and Durga by Shaktas. When Jagannath has his divine slumber (Sayana Yatra) he is believed to assume the aspect of Durga. According to the "Niladri Mahodaya"^[163] Idol of Jagannath is placed on the Chakra Yantra, the idol of Balabhadra on the Shankha Yantra and the idol of Subhadra on the Padma Yantra.

Jagannath and other religions

Jagannath and Islam

During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire era, Jagannath temples were one of the targets of the Muslim armies. Firuz Tughlaq, for example raided Odisha and desecrated the Jagannath temple according to his court historians.^[164] Odisha was one of the last eastern regions to fall into the control of Sultanates and Mughal invasion, and they were among the earliest to declare independence and break away. According to Starza, the Jagannath images were the targets of the invaders, and a key religious symbol that the rulers would protect and hide away in forests from the aggressors.^[165] However, the Muslims were not always destructive. For example, during the rule of Akbar, the Jagannath tradition flourished.^[165] However, states Starza, "Muslim attacks on the Puri temple became serious after the death of Akbar, continued intermittently throughout the reign of Jahangir".^[165]

The local Hindu rulers evacuated and hid the images of Jagannath and other deities many times between 1509 and 1734 CE, to "protect them from Muslim zeal" for destruction. During Aurangzeb's time, an image was seized, shown to the emperor and then destroyed in Bijapur, but it is unclear if that image was of Jagannath.^[165] Muslim rulers did not destroy the Jagannath temple complex because it was a source of substantial treasury revenue through the collection of pilgrim tax collected from Hindus visiting it on their pilgrimage.^[166]

Jagannath and Sikhism

The Sikh emperor Ranjit Singh, claimed by some to have revered Jagannath. He allegedly bequeathed the Koh-i-noor diamond (left) to the Jagannath temple in Puri.^[167]

In 1506

For Christian missionaries who arrived through the ports of eastern states of India such as

These views are picked up in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's posthumous poetical illustration to The Temple of Juggernaut,^[178] a picture by Alfred Gomersal Vickers. However, she counters them not so much with hostility, as with the Christian doctrine of 'Faith, Hope, and Love'.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Temple of Juggernaut, picture by A. G. Vickers, poetical illustration
by L. E. L.

In his book Christian Researches in Asia, published in 1811,^[179] Buchanan built on this theme and added licentiousness to it. He called hymns in language he did not know nor could read as "obscene stanzas", art works on temple walls as "indecent emblems", and described "Juggernaut" and Hinduism to his American readers as the religion of disgusting Moloch and false gods. Buchanan writings formed the "first images of Indian religions" to the American evangelical audience in early 19th-century, was promoted by American magazines such as The Panoplist and his book on "Juggernaut" attracted enough reader demand that it was republished in numerous editions.^[175] Buchanan's writings on "Juggernaut" influenced the American imagination of Indian religions for another 50 years, formed the initial impressions and served as a template for reports by other missionaries who followed Buchanan in India for most of the 19th century.^[175] According to William Gribbin and other scholars, Buchanan's Juggernaut metaphor is a troublesome example of intercultural misunderstanding and constructed identity.^{[176][180][181]}

Due to persistent attacks from non-Indic religions, even to this day, devotees of only

The English traveller William Burton visited the Jagannath temple. According to Avinash Patra, Burton made absurd observations in 1633 that are inconsistent with all historical and contemporary records, such as the image of Jagannatha being "a serpent, with seven heads".[185] Burton described it as "the mirror of all wickedness and idolatry" to the Europeans, an introduction of Hinduism as "monstrous paganism" to early travellers to the Indian subcontinent. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier never saw the Puri temple icon and its decorations, but described the jewelry worn by the idol from hearsay accounts.^[185] François Bernier mentioned the Puri chariot festival, in his 1667 memoir, but did not describe the icon of Jagannath raising the question whether he was able to see it.^[185]

According to Kanungo, states Goldie Osuri, the Jagannath tradition has been a means of legitimizing royalty.^[186] Codaganga, a benevolent ruler of the Kalinga region (now Odisha and nearby regions), built the extant Puri temple. Kanungo states that this endeavor was an attempt by him to establish his agency, and he extrapolates this practice into late medieval and modern era developments.^[186] According to him, Muslim rulers attempted to control it for the same motivation, thereafter the Marathas, then East India Company and then the British crown over the colonial era sought to legitimize its influence and hegemonic control in the region by appropriating control over the Jagannath temple and affiliating themselves with the deities.^[186]

Jagannath became an influential figure and icon for power and politics during the 19th-century colonialism and Christian missionary activity, states Osuri.^[186] The British government initially took over the control and management of major Jagannath temples, to collect fees and Pilgrim Tax from Hindu who arrived from all over the Indian subcontinent to visit.^{[187][note 7][note 8]} In contrast, Christian missionaries strongly opposed the British government association with Jagannath temple because its connected the government with idolatry, or the "worship of false god". Between 1856 and 1863, the British government accepted the missionary demand and handed over the Jagannath temples to the Hindus.^[186][189] According to Cassels and Mukherjee, the British rule documents suggest that the handing over was more motivated by the growing Hindu agitation against the Pilgrim Tax that they considered as discriminatory targeting based on religion, and rising corruption among the British officials and their Indian assistants, in the handling of collected tax.^[190][191]

To colonial era Hindu nationalists in the late 19th-century and 20th-century, Jagannath became a unifying symbol which combined their religion, social and cultural heritage into a political cause of self-rule and freedom movement.^[192]

Festivals

A large number of traditional festivals are observed by the devotees of Jagannath. Out of those numerous festivals, thirteen are important.^[193]

1. Niladri Mahodaya
2. Snana Yatra
3. Ratha Yatra or Shri Gundicha Yatra
4. Shri Hari Sayana
5. Utthapana Yatra
6. Parswa Paribartana
7. Dakhyinayana Yatra
8. Prarabana Yatra
9. Pusyabhisheka
10. Uttarayana
11. Dola Yatra
12. Damanaka Chaturdasi^[194]
13. Chandan Yatra

Ratha Yatra is most significant of all festivals of Jagannath.

Ratha Yatra

The Jagannatha triad are usually worshipped in the sanctum of the temple, but once during the month of

Chera pahara is held on two days, on the first day of the Ratha Yatra, when the deities are taken to the garden house at Mausi Maa Temple and again on the last day of the festival, when the deities are ceremoniously brought back to the Shri Mandir.

As per another ritual, when the deities are taken out from the Shri Mandir to the chariots in Pahandi vijay, disgruntled devotees hold a right to offer kicks, slaps and make derogatory remarks to the images, and Jagannath behaves like a commoner.

In the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are taken from the Jagannath Temple in the chariots to the Gundicha Temple, where they stay for seven days. Thereafter, the deities again ride the chariots back to Shri Mandir in bahuda yatra. On the way back, the three chariots stop at the Mausi Maa Temple and the deities are offered poda pitha, a kind of baked cake which are generally consumed by the poor sections only.

The observance of the Ratha Yatra of Jagannath dates back to the period of the Puranas.^[

also organized the Ratha Yatra, though the most grand festival in terms of scale and popularity takes place at Puri.

In fact, Starza

Friar Odoric of Pordenone visited India in 1316–1318, some 20 years after Marco Polo had dictated the account of his travels while in a Genovese prison.^[200] In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the king and queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.^{[201] [202]}

Temples

Main article: Jagannath Temple (disambiguation)

Besides the only temple described below, there are many temples in India, three more in Bangladesh and one in Nepal.

The Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha. It is a major historic Hindu pilgrimage site. Left: An artist's sketch in 1915.

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples in India. The temple is built in the Kalinga style of architecture, with the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha. Jagannath temple is a pancharatha with well-developed pagas. 'Gajasimhas' (elephant lions) carved in recesses of the pagas, the 'Jhampasimhas' (Jumping lions) are also placed properly. The perfect pancharatha temple developed into a Nagara-rekha temple with unique Oriya style of subdivisions like the Pada, Kumbha, Pata, Kani and Vasanta. The Vimana or the apsidal structure consists of several sections superimposed one over other, tapering to the top where the Amalakashila and Kalasa are placed.^[203]

Temple of Jagannath at Puri

has four distinct sectional structures, namely -

1. Deula or Vimana (Sanctum sanctorum) where the triad deities are lodged on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls);
2. Mukhashala (Frontal porch);
3. Jaga mohan
   , (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), and
4. Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall).^[204]

The temple is built on an elevated platform, as compared to

Lingaraja temple and other temples belonging to this type. This is the first temple in the history of Kalingaan

temple architecture where all the chambers like Jagamohana, Bhogamandapa and Natyamandapa were built along with the main temple. There are miniature shrines on the three outer sides of the main temple.

The Deula consists of a tall shikhara (dome) housing the

Aruna, the charioteer of Surya, faces the Lion Gate. This column was brought here from the Sun temple of Konark

.

There is a temple situated in Mahesh, Serampore in West Bengal, which is famous for Rathayatra of Mahesh.

The temple's historical records Madala panji maintains that the temple was originally built by King Yayati of the

Somavamsi dynasty on the site of the present shrine. However, the historians question the veracity and historicity of the Madala Panji. As per historians, the Deula and the Mukhashala were built in the 12th century by Ganga King Anangabheemadeva, the grandson of Anantavarman Chodaganga

and the Natamandapa and Bhogamandapa were constructed subsequently during the reign of Gajapati Purushottama Deva (1462–1491) and Prataprudra Deva (1495–1532) respectively. According to Madala Panji, the outer prakara was built by Gajapati Kapilendradeva (1435–1497). The inner prakara called the Kurma bedha (Tortoise encompassment) was built by Purushottama Deva.

See also

• Hindu deities
• Hundun
• Ideogram
• Lingam
• 'Oro
• Ratha Yatra

Notes

1. ^ The shape of Balabhadra's head, also called Balarama or Baladeva, varies in some temples between somewhat flat and semi-circular.^[38]
2. ^ Pranipatya Jagannatham Sarvajina Vararchitam. Sarva Buddha Mayam Siddhi Vyapinam Gaganopamam.^[96]
3. ^ Original: ଦେଉଳ ଭିତରେ ସିଂହ୍ରାସନେ ବିଜେ ହୋଇ ବଉଦ୍ଧ ରୁପରେ ପ୍ରଭୁ ଶଙ୍ଗଚକ୍ର ବହି |
4. ^ Original: ବନ୍ଦଇ ଶ୍ରୀ ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ ବଇକୁଣ୍ଠବାସୀ ବୌଦ୍ଧରୁପେ ନୀଲଗିରି ଶିଖେ ଅଛ ବସି |
5. ^ Also in Madhya Parva: There comes Sri Jagannath as Buddha to liberate the Mankind ...^[106]
6. ^ At another part in Adi Parva he also says: Glory be to Rama Krsna Brahmaa as Subhadra and to the great soul Buddha ... Satyabrata Das believes this to be the wonderful integration of all faiths.^[106]
7. ^ Claudius Buchanan mentions the Pilgrim Tax was collected from Hindus after they had walked very long distances, for many weeks, to visit the Puri temple. Anyone refusing to pay would be denied entry to the city.^[188]
8. ^ The pilgrim tax was not a British invention, and was a religious tax on Hindus introduced by the Muslim rulers during the Mughal era.^[166]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Eschmann, Kulke & Tripathi 1978, pp. 31–98.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Rajaguru 1992.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Starza 1993, pp. 72–77, Cult Purusottama at Puri.
4. ^ ^{a b} Miśra 2005, p. 99, chapter 9, Jagannāthism.
5. ^ ^{a b} Ray 2007, p. 151.
6. ^ ^{a b} Mukherjee 1981, p. 67.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e} Mukherjee 1981, pp. 155–156.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Starza 1993, pp. 73, 76.
10. ^
    ISBN 978-81-8450-150-6
    .
11. ^
    ISBN 978-93-80213-22-4
    .
12. ^ ^{a b} Mukherjee 1981.
13. ^ ^{a b} Eschmann, Kulke & Tripathi 1978.
14. ^ Mukherjee 1981; Eschmann, Kulke & Tripathi 1978; Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392; Rajaguru 1992; Guy 1992, pp. 213–230; Starza 1993; Ray 1993; Patnaik 1994; Kulke & Schnepel 2001; Miśra 2005, chapter 9, Jagannāthism.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Patnaik 1994, chapter 6. Sanatana Dharma: The Great Synthesis.
16. ^ "Synthetic Character of Jagannath Culture", Pp. 1–4 Archived 8 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Patra 2011, pp. 5–16.
18. ^ Starza 1993, p. 72.
19. ^ Pradhan, Atul Chandra (June 2004). "Evolution of Jagannath Cult" (PDF). Orissa Review: 74–77. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
20. ^ ^{a b} Miśra 2005, p. 97, chapter 9, Jagannāthism.
21. ^ ^{a b} Patnaik, Bibhuti (3 July 2011). "My friend, philosopher and guide". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 15 July 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
22. ^ Tripathy, B; Singh P.K. (June 2012). "Jagannath Cult in North-east India" (PDF). Orissa Review: 24–27. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
23. ^ See: Chakravarti 1994, p 140
24. ISBN 978-0195148923
    .
25. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4
    .
26. ^ Eschmann, Kulke & Tripathi 1978, p. 537.
27. ^ Das, Basanta Kumar (2009). "Lord Jagannath Symbol of National Integration" (PDF). Orissa Review. Retrieved 10 December 2012. The term Jagannath etymologically means the Lord of the Universe
28. ^ Mohanty, Surendra. Lord Jagannatha: the microcosm of Indian spiritual culture, p. 93. Orissa Sahitya Academy (1982)
29. ^ "::: LordJagannath.Co.in ::: Lord Jagannath (Names)". lordjagannath.co.in. 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2012. Different names of Shree Jagannath
30. ^ "The Sampradaya Sun - Independent Vaisnava News - Feature Stories - March 2008".
31. ^ "64 Names of Lord Jagannath Around Odisha | PURIWAVES". puriwaves.nirmalya.in. Retrieved 11 December 2012. Sri Jagannath is being worshipped throughout Orissa over thirty districts in 64 names.
32. ^ ^{a b} Joshi, Dina Krishna (June–July 2007). "Lord Jagannath: the tribal deity" (PDF). Orissa Review: 80–84. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
33. ^ ^{a b c d} Starza 1993, pp. 65–67 with footnotes.
34. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0
    .
35. ISBN 978-81-85094-14-4
    .
36. ^ ^{a b} Starza 1993, pp. 48–52.
37. ^ ^{a b c} Chowdhury, Janmejay. "Iconography of Jagannath" (PDF). Srimandir: 21–23. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
38. ^
    ISBN 978-81-246-0198-3
    .
39. ^ Pattanaik, Shibasundar (July 2002). "Sudarsan of Lord Jagannath" (PDF). Orissa Review: 58–60. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
40. ^ "The origin of Patita Pavana" (PDF). Sri Krishna Kathamrita. Sri Gopaljiu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
41. ^ Das, Madhavananda (8 June 2004). "The Story of Gopal Jiu". Vaishnav News. Archived from the original on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
42. ^ Vaishnava. Cz. "Jagannatha Puri". Bhakti Vedanta Memorial Library. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
43. ISBN 978-0-415-93919-5
    .
44. ISBN 978-1-118-11077-5
    .
45. ^ ^{a b c} Patnaik 2005, pp. 111–119.
46. ^ ^{a b} Mishra, Kabi (3 July 2011). "He is the infinite Brahman". The Telegraph, Kolkata. Archived from the original on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
47. ^ Asiatic Society of Bengal (1825). Asiatic researches or transactions of the Society instituted in Bengal, for inquiring into the history and antiquities, the arts, sciences, and literature, of Asia. p. 319.
48. ^ Dash, Durgamadhab (June 2007). "Place of Chakratirtha in the cult of Lord Jagannath" (PDF). Orissa Review. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
49. ^ ^{a b} Mohanty, Tarakanta (July 2005). "Lord Jagannath in the form of Lord Raghunath and Lord Jadunath" (PDF). Orissa Review: 109–110. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
50. ^ Patra 2011, pp. 4–18.
51. ^ Asiatic Journal. Parbury, Allen, and Company. 1841. pp. 233–.
52. ISBN 978-81-7120-226-3
    .
53. ISBN 978-81-7835-041-7
    .
54. ^ ^{a b} Patra 2011, pp. 8–10, 17–18.
55. ^ Starza 1993, pp. 64.
56. ^ Lochtefeld 2002, p. 665.
57. ^ "Index of 16 Purans". Markandeya. 2009. pp. 18, 19. Archived from the original on 1 September 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
58. ISBN 978-8120820494. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
59. ^ Bakker 2004, Three Chapters of Saiva Material Added to the Earliest Known Recension of the Skanda Purana).
60. ^ Books, Kausiki (24 October 2021). Skanda Purana: Vaishnava Khanda: Purushottama Kshetra Mahatmya: English Translation only without Slokas. Kausiki Books. p. 4.
61. ISBN 978-81-8495-024-3
    .
62. ISBN 978-81-208-1235-2
    .
63. ISBN 978-81-207-1660-5
    .
64. ISBN 978-0-595-61452-3
    .
65. ^ Urmi: The Journal of the Odisha Society of Americas 49th Convention: For Annual Convention Held in 2017 at Dearborn, Michigan. Odisha Society of the Americas. pp. 129–132.
66. ISBN 978-81-7625-226-3
    .
67. ISBN 978-81-208-3462-0
    .
68. ^ Ralph TH Griffith. Rig Veda. Wikisource. verse 10.155.3; Quote: अदो यद्दारु प्लवते सिन्धोः पारे अपूरुषम् । तदा रभस्व दुर्हणो तेन गच्छ परस्तरम् ॥३॥
69. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Misra 2007.
70. ISBN 978-1013407505
    .
71. ISBN 978-8121226509
    .
72. OCLC 237230461
    .
73. ^ Starza 1993, pp. 55–56.
74. ^ ^{a b} Starza 1993, pp. 58–59 with footnotes.
75. ISBN 978-1-57003-467-1
    .
76. ISBN 978-8121200646
    .
77. ^ Patel, C.B. (July 2003), Oldest Jagannath Temple of Puri: The Buddhist and Somavamsi Connections, Bhubaneswar: Government of Odisha, p. 2
78. ^ Ganguly 1986, pp. 10–11, CHAPTER II: HISTORY.
79. JSTOR 25207562
80. ^ Misra 2007, p. 141.
81. ISBN 978-1104197568
    .
82. ^ Kanungo, Archana (July 2013), Unity in Diversity: The Uniqueness of Jagannath Culture of Odisha (PDF), Bhubaneshwar: Government of Odisha
83. ISBN 978-1-888729-10-8
    .
84. ^ Starza 1993, pp. 59.
85. ^ Holt 2008, p. 18–21.
86. ^ Coulter 2013, p. 109.
87. ^ Srinivasan 2011, p. 182.
88. ^ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 96.
89. ^ Doniger O'Flaherty 1988, p. 188.
90. ^ Lochtefeld 2002, p. 128, Buddha Avatar.
91. ISBN 978-0342257140
    .
92. ISBN 9780836417548
    .
93. ISBN 978-0905209173
    .
94. ^ Starza 1993, pp. 55.
95. ^ Starza 1993, p. 57.
96. ^ "JÑĀNASIDDHI". Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon. 2019.
97. ^ Nayak, Dr. Ganeswar (11 March 2014). "History of Odisha (From earliest times to 1434 A.D)" (PDF). Bhubaneshwar: Utkal University. p. 107.
98. ^ Kar. Dr. Karunakar. Ascharja Charjachaya. Orissa Sahitya Akademy (1969)
99. ^ Patra 2011, p. 7.
100. OCLC 1179182033
     .
101. ISBN 978-8170173755
     .
102. OCLC 1391872675
     .
103. ^ Mansinha 2021, CHAPTER VIII. THE POST SARALA PERIOD - A PERIOD OF EXPERIMENTS: I.The Buddhist Influence - The Metaphysical Poets.
104. ASIN B08SBVZDYK
     .
105. ^ Das, Satyabrata (July 2008), Sri Krsna - Jagannath Consciousness: Vyasa - Jayadeva - Sarala Dasa (PDF), Bhubaneshwar: Government of Odisha
106. ^ ^{a b} Das 2008, p. 2.
107. ISBN 978-81-8450-150-6
     .
108. ^ Barik, P M (July 2005). "Jainism and Buddhism in Jagannath culture" (PDF). Orissa Review: 36. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
109. ^ Das, Aniruddha. Jagannath and Nepal. pp. 9–10.
110. ^ ^{a b c} Starza 1993, pp. 62–63 with footnotes.
111. ^ ^{a b c} Starza 1993, pp. 63–64 with footnotes.
112. ^ Elwin, Verrier (1955). The Religion of an Indian Tribe. Oxford University Press (Reprint). p. 597.
113. ^ ^{a b c d} Starza 1993, pp. 67–70 with footnotes.
114. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
     .
115. ^ Mohanty, P.C. (June 2012). "Jagannath temples of Ganjam" (PDF). Odisha Review: 113–118. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
116. ^ Mukherjee 1981, pp. 1–2.
117. ^ "History od deities". Jagannath temple, Puri administration. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
118. ^
     ISBN 978-0195148916
     .
119. ^ "History of deities". Jagannath temple, Puri administration. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
120. ^ Behera, Prajna Paramita (June 2004). "The Pillars of Homage to Lord Jagannatha" (PDF). Orissa Review: 65. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
121. ^ Starza 1993, pp. 70, 97, 105.
122. ^ ^{a b c} Behuria, Rabindra Kumar (June 2012). "The Cult of Jagannath" (PDF). Orissa Review. pp. 42–43. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
123. ^ Shiva Purana. "Shiva Shahasranama". harekrsna.de. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
124. ^ Patra 2011, pp. 17–18.
125. ISBN 978-81-7835-041-7
     .
126. ^ ^{a b c d} Tripathy, Manorama (June 2012). "A Reassessment of the origin of the Jagannath cult of Puri" (PDF). Orissa Review: 30. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
127. ^ ^{a b} Starza 1993, p. 76.
128. ^ Sālabega 1998, pp. 13–14.
129. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 341.
130. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 347.
131. ^ Dalal 2010, pp. 373–374.
132. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 388.
133. ^ Chakraborty, Yogabrata (28 June 2023). "পুরীধাম ও জগন্নাথদেবের ব্রহ্মরূপ বৃত্তান্ত" [Puridham and the tale of lord Jagannath's legendary 'Bramharup']. dainikstatesmannews.com (in Bengali). Kolkata: Dainik Statesman (The Statesman Group). p. 4. Archived from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
134. ^
     ISBN 978-81-242-0556-3
     .
135. ISBN 9789380213224
     . Retrieved 28 November 2012.
136. ^
     ISBN 978-93-80213-22-4
     .
137. ISBN 978-93-80213-22-4
     .
138. ISBN 978-93-80213-22-4
     .
139. ^ Purushottam Dev and Padmavati. Amar Chitra Katha. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
140. ^ Mohanty & Buhler 1980, p. 7.
141. ^ Das 1982, p. 120.
142. ^ "Guruji's Compositions:Dance and Drama". of Kelucharan Mohapatra. Srjan. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
143. ISBN 978-81-250-1453-9
     .
144. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0
     .
145. ^ Das 1982, p. 120-121.
146. ^ ^{a b} Panigrahi, K.C. (1995). History of Orissa. Kitab Mahal. p. 320.
147. ^
     ISBN 9788170992141
     .
148. ^ Ray 2007, p. 149.
149. ISBN 81-260-1194-7
     .
150. ^ Jayanti Rath. "Jagannath—The Epitome of Supreme Lord Vishnu" (PDF).
151. ^ Mukherjee 1981, pp. 66–67.
152. ^ Rajaguru 1992, vol 2, part 2.18. The Cult of Gopal Krsna or gopinatha.
153. ^ "All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Shri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead." Bhagavat Purana 1:3:28
154. ^
     ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0
     .
155. ISBN 9780231508438
     .
156. ISBN 9780198035572
     .
157. ISBN 9781578592593
     .
158. ISBN 9780838751442
     .
159. ^ Tripathy, Shrinibas (September 2009). "Goddess Bimala at Puri" (PDF). Orissa Review: 66–69. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
160. ^ "THE TEMPLE OF JAGANNATHA" (PDF). Official site of Jagannath temple. Shree Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
161. ^ Starza 1993, p. 20.
162. ^ Mahapatra, Ratnakar (September–October 2005). "Vimala Temple at the Jagannath Temple Complex, Puri" (PDF). Orissa Review: 9–14. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
163. ISBN 9788178350417
     .
164. ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5
     .
165. ^ ^{a b c d} Starza 1993, pp. 146–147.
166. ^
     ISBN 978-0-913215-26-5
     .
167. ISBN 978-1-108-04642-8
     .
168. ^ ^{a b} http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/orissareview/2012/Feb-March/engpdf/1-6.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
169. ^ ^{a b} "Home". 13 November 2013.
170. ^ http://www.sikh-heritage.co.uk/Scriptures/Guru%20Granth/Guru%20Granth.htm  ^{[dead link]}
171. ISBN 9788170992141
     .
172. ^ गुरु नानक देव और उनके द्वारा प्रवर्तित मार्ग. www.livehindusthan.com (in Hindi).
173. ISBN 9788170170303
     .
174. ISBN 81-7380-778-7
     , 1 Jan 2001, 2nd ed.
175. ^
     ISBN 978-0-19-065492-4
     .
176. ^
     doi:10.1080/00335637309383178
     .
177. ^ Kulke & Schnepel 2001, pp. 159–160.
178. ^ Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1839). "poetical illustration". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1840. Fisher, Son & Co.Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1839). "picture". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1840. Fisher, Son & Co.
179. ^ Buchanan, Claudius (1811). Researches in Asia with Notices of the Translation of the Scriptures into the Oriental Languages.
180. ^ S. Behera (2007), Essentialising the Jagannath cult: a discourse on self and other, Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics, Volume 30, Number 1-2, pages 51-53
181. ^ Nancy Gardner Cassels (1972), The Compact and the Pilgrim Tax: The Genesis of East India Company Social Policy, Canadian Journal of History, Volume 7, Number 1, pages 45-48
182. ^ Rautray, Samanwaya. "SC urges Jagannath temple to allow entry of non-Hindus". The Economic Times.
183. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Dear Non-Hindus, you wished to know why you aren't allowed in Jagannath Temple? Here's the Answer". YouTube.
184. ^ http://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2012/June/engpdf/110-115.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
185. ^ ^{a b c} Patra 2011, pp. 5–9.
186. ^
     ISBN 978-0-415-66557-5
     .
187. S2CID 163518878
     .
188. ^ Claudius Buchanan (1812). Christian Researches in Asia, Ninth edition. T. Cadell & W. Davies. pp. 20–21.
189. ^ James Peggs (1830). Pilgrim Tax in India: The Great Temple in Orissa, Second edition. London: Seely, Fleet-Street.
190. ISBN 978-974-8304-72-4
     .
191. ISBN 978-0-230-29808-8
     .
192. ISBN 978-0-415-66557-5
     .
193. ^ "Festivals of Lord Sri Jagannath". nilachakra.org. 2010. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012. By large 13 festivals are celebrated at Lord Jagannath Temple
194. ^ "Damanaka Chaturdasi - Jagannath Temple". jagannathtemplepuri.com. Retrieved 21 December 2012. This falls in the month of Chaitra. On this day, the deities pay a visit to the garden of the celebrated Jagannath Vallabha Matha where they pick-up the tender leaves of the Dayanaa unnoticed by anybody.
195. ^ Starza 1993, p. 16.
196. ^ Das 1982, p. 40.
197. ^ "Juggernaut, definition and meaning". Merriam Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
198. ^ Karan, Jajati (4 July 2008). "Lord Jagannath yatra to begin soon". IBN Live. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
199. ^ Starza 1993, p. 133.
200. ^ Mitter 1977, p. 10.
201. ^ Starza 1993, p. 129.
202. ^ Das 1982, p. 48.
203. ^ "Architecture of Jagannath temple". Jagannath temple, Puri. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
204. ^ "Jagannath Temple, India - 7 wonders". 7wonders.org. 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012. The temple is divided into four chambers: Bhogmandir, Natamandir, Jagamohana and Deul

Bibliography

• Coulter, Charles Russell (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge.
  ISBN 978-1-135-96390-3
  .
• Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. New Delhi: Penguin Books India.
  ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6
  .
• Das, Bikram. Domain of Jagannath - A Historical Study, BR Publishing Corporation.
• Das, J. P. (1982), Puri Paintings: the Chitrakara and his Work, New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann
• Das, M.N., ed. (1977). Sidelights on History and Culture of Orissa. Cuttack.
• Das, Suryanarayan (2010). Jagannath Through the Ages, Sanbun Publishers, New Delhi.
• Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1988), The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
• ISBN 9788173046179
  .
• Guy, John (1992). "New evidence for the Jagannatha sect in seventeenth century Nepal".
  S2CID 162316166
  .
• ISBN 978-0-02897-135-3 – via Encyclopedia.com
  .
• Holt, John Clifford (2004). The Buddhist Viṣṇu: Religious Transformation, Politics, and Culture. Columbia University Press.
• Holt, John Clifford (2008). The Buddhist Viṣṇu: Religious Transformation, Politics, and Culture. Motilal Banarsidass.
  ISBN 978-81-208-3269-5
  .
• Holt, John Clifford; Kinnard, Jacob N.; Walters, Jonathan S., eds. (2012). Constituting Communities: Theravada Buddhism and the Religious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia. SUNY Press.
  ISBN 9780791487051
  .
• Hunter, W.W. Orissa: The Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule, Vol. I, Chapter-III, 1872.
• Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase.
  ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
  .
• ISBN 978-81-7304-386-4
  .
• Kulke, Hermann in The Anthropology of Values, Berger Peter (ed.): Yayati Kesari revisted, Dorling Kindrsley Pvt. Ltd., (2010).
• Leyden, Rudolf von (1982), Ganjifa: The Playing Cards of India, The Victoria and Albert Museum,
  ISBN 978-09052-0-9173
• Mahapatra, G.N.: Jagannath in History and Religious Tradition, Calcutta, 1982.
• Mahapatra, K.N.: Antiquity of Jagannath Puri as a place of pilgrimage, OHRJ, Vol. III, No.1, April, 1954, p. 17.
• Mahapatra, R.P.: Jaina Monuments of Orissa, New Delhi, 1984.
• Mishra, K.C.: The Cult of Jagannath, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta, 1971.
• Mishra, K.C.: The Cult of Jagannath, Calcutta, 1971.
• Miśra, Narayan (2005). Durga Nandan Mishra (ed.). Annals and Antiquities of the Temple of Jagannātha. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons.
  ISBN 81-7625-747-8
  .
• Mitter, P. (1977), Much Maligned Monsters: A History of European Reactions to Indian Art, University of Chicago Press,
  ISBN 9780226532394
• Mohanty, A. B. (Ed.): Madala Panji, Utkal University reprinted, Bhubaneswar, 2001.
• Mohanty, B.C.; Buhler, Alfred (1980). "Patachitras of Orissa". Study of Contemporary Textile Crafts of India. Ahmedabad, India: Calico Museum of Textiles.
• Mohapatra, Bishnu N. Ways of 'Belonging': The Kanchi Kaveri Legend and the Construction of Oriya Identity, Studies in History, 12, 2, n.s., pp. 204–221, Sage Publications, New Delhi (1996).
• Mukherjee, Prabhat (1981) [1940]. The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.
  ISBN 8120602293
  .
• Nayak, Ashutosh (1999). Sri Jagannath Parbaparbani Sebapuja (Oriya), Cuttack.
• Padhi, B.M.: Daru Devata (Oriya), Cuttack, 1964.
• Panda, L.K.: Saivism in Orissa, New Delhi, 1985.
• Patnaik, Himanshu S. (1994). Jagannath: His Temple, Cult and Festivals. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
  ISBN 81-7305-051-1
  .
• Patnaik, N. (2006). Sacred Geography of Puri: Structure and Organisation and Cultural Role of a Pilgrim Centre,
  ISBN 81-7835-477-2
• Patnaik, Tandra (2005). Śūnya Puruṣa: Bauddha Vaiṣṇavism of Orissa. DK Printworld.
  ISBN 978-81-246-0345-1
  .
• Patra, Avinash (2011). Maria Joseph (Vishnupriya Dasi) (ed.). Origin & Antiquity of the Cult of Lord Jagannath. Oxford: Oxford University weekly Journal. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2023. Alt URL
• Rajaguru, S.N. (1992). Inscriptions of Jagannath Temple and Origin of Sri Purusottam Jagannath. Vol. 1–2. Puri:
  Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya
  .
• Ray, B. C., Aioswarjya Kumar Das, ed. (2010). Tribals of Orissa: The changing Socio-Economic Profile, Centre for Advanced Studies in History and Culture, Bhubaneswar.
• Ray, Bidyut Lata (1993). Studies in Jagannatha Cult. New Delhi: Classical Publishing Company.
• Ray, Dipti (2007). Prataparudradeva, the Last Great Suryavamsi King of Orissa (A.D. 1497 to A.D. 1540). Northern Book Centre.
  ISBN 9788172111953
  .
• Sahu, N.K.: Buddhism in Orissa, Utkal University, 1958.
• Sālabega (1998). White Whispers: Selected Poems of Salabega. Sahitya Akademi.
  ISBN 978-81-260-0483-6
  .
• Siṃhadeba, Jitāmitra Prasāda: Tāntric art of Orissa
• Singh, N.K.: Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Volume 1.
• Sircar, D.C. (1965). Indian Epigraphy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
• Starza, O. M. (1993). The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art and Cult. Studies in South Asian culture, 15. Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill.
  ISBN 90-04-09673-6
  .
• Starza-Majewski, Olgierd M. L: The Jagannatha temple at Puri and its Deities, Amsterdam, 1983.
• Upadhyay, Arun Kumar: Vedic View of Jagannath: Series of Centre of Excellence in Traditional Shastras :10, Rashtriya Sanskrita Vidyapeetha, Tirupati-517507, AP. [2006]
• Mansinha, Mayadhar (10 September 2021) [1960]. History of Oriya Literature. Sheridan, Wyoming: Creative Media Partners, LLC.
  ISBN 978-1015025486
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jagannath.

Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Jagannath.

• Puruṣottama-kṣetra-māhātmya, Skanda Purana
• Shri Jaganath, Official website Archived 19 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
• Shri Jaganath Temple at Puri
• Shri Jagannath Dham, Puri
• Detailed description of Ratha Yatra festival of Jagannath
• Ratha Yatra
• 136th Jagannath Temple Ratha Yatra in Ahmedabad, Gujarat
• Street View around Jagannath Temple
• Mahaprabhu Sri Jagannatha The Lord of Universe (Paperback Edition)