James B. Conant

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

James B. Conant
Nathan Marsh Pusey
Personal details
Born
James Bryant Conant

(1893-03-26)March 26, 1893
Dorchester, Massachusetts, U.S.
DiedFebruary 11, 1978(1978-02-11) (aged 84)
Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.
Spouse
Patty Thayer Richards
​
​
(m. 1920)​
Relations
Chemical Warfare Service
Years of service1917–1919
Ranka gold maple leaf Major
Battles/warsWorld War I

James Bryant Conant (March 26, 1893 – February 11, 1978) was an American

U.S. Ambassador to West Germany. Conant obtained a Ph.D. in chemistry
from Harvard in 1916.

During

acid-base chemistry
.

In 1933, Conant became the President of Harvard University with a reformist agenda that involved dispensing with a number of customs, including class rankings and the requirement for Latin classes. He abolished

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and co-educational classes. During his presidency, women were admitted to Harvard Medical School and Harvard Law School
for the first time.

Conant was appointed to the

hydrogen bomb
.

In his later years at Harvard, Conant taught undergraduate courses on the history and philosophy of science, and wrote books explaining the scientific method to laymen. In 1953, he retired as President of Harvard University and became the United States High Commissioner for Germany, overseeing the restoration of German sovereignty after World War II, and then was Ambassador to West Germany until 1957.

On returning to the United States, Conant criticized the education system in

The American High School Today (1959), Slums and Suburbs (1961), and The Education of American Teachers (1963). Between 1965 and 1969, Conant authored his autobiography, My Several Lives (1970). He became increasingly infirm, had a series of strokes in 1977, and died in a nursing home in Hanover, New Hampshire
, the following year.

Early life and education

Conant was born in

West Roxbury, Massachusetts, and he graduated near the top of his class from the school in 1910.[3]

Encouraged by his science teacher, Newton H. Black, in September of that year he entered

Elmer P. Kohler. He was also an editor of The Harvard Crimson. He joined the Signet Society and Delta Upsilon,[5] and was initiated as a brother of the Omicron chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1912.[6] He graduated Phi Beta Kappa with his Bachelor of Arts in June 1913.[5] He then went to work on his doctorate, which was an unusual double dissertation. The first part, supervised by Richards, concerned "The Electrochemical Behavior of Liquid Sodium Amalgams"; the second, supervised by Kohler, was "A Study of Certain Cyclopropane Derivatives".[7] Harvard awarded Conant his Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1916.[8]

Career

In 1915, Conant entered into a business partnership with two other Harvard chemistry graduates,

Stanley Pennock and Chauncey Loomis, to form the LPC Laboratories. They opened a plant in a one-story building in Queens, New York City, where they manufactured chemicals used by the pharmaceutical industry like benzoic acid that were selling at high prices on account of the interruption of imports from Germany due to World War I. In 1916, the departure of organic chemist Roger Adams created a vacancy at Harvard that was offered to Conant. Since he aspired to an academic career, Conant accepted the offer and returned to Harvard. On November 27, 1916, an explosion killed Pennock and two others and completely destroyed the plant. A contributing cause was Conant's faulty test procedures.[9][10]

U.S. Army

Following the

poison gases. Initially, his work concentrated on mustard gas, but in May 1918, Conant took charge of a unit concerned with the development of lewisite. He was promoted to major on July 20, 1918. A pilot plant was built, and then a full-scale production plant in Cleveland, but the war ended before lewisite could be used in battle.[11]

Harvard University professor

Conant was appointed an assistant professor of chemistry at Harvard in 1919. The following year he became engaged to Richards's daughter, Grace (Patty) Thayer Richards. They were married in the

Appleton Chapel at Harvard on April 17, 1920, and had two sons, James Richards Conant, born in May 1923, and Theodore Richards Conant, born in July 1928.[12]

Conant became an associate professor in 1924.

Abbott Lawrence Lowell, made a counter offer: immediate promotion to professor, effective September 1, 1927, with a salary of $7,000 (roughly equivalent to US$122,782 as of 2024[16]) and a grant of $9,000 per annum for research. Conant accepted and stayed at Harvard.[17] In 1929, he became the Sheldon Emery Professor of Organic Chemistry, and then, in 1931, the chairman of the chemistry department.[13]

Between 1928 and 1933, Conant published 55 papers.

enthalpy changes of these reactions[23] supported the later development of the theory of hyperconjugation.[24]

Conant's investigations helped in the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of acids and bases.

Lowry, Lewis, and Hammett as a developer of modern understanding of acids and bases.[33]

Between 1929 and his retirement from chemical research in 1933,

polymerisation of isoprene to prepare synthetic rubber.[18]

Another line of research involved the

tissue hypoxia.[44]

Conant wrote a chemistry textbook with his former science teacher Black, entitled Practical Chemistry, which was published in 1920, with a revised edition in 1929. This was superseded in 1937 by their New Practical Chemistry, which in turn had a revised edition in 1946.

German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.[52]

Harvard University president

Further information: Harvard University

After some months of lobbying and discussion, Harvard's ruling body, the

Harvard Corporation, announced on May 8, 1933, that it had elected Conant as the next President of Harvard.[53] Alfred North Whitehead, Harvard's eminent professor of philosophy disagreed with the decision, declaring, "The Corporation should not have elected a chemist to the Presidency." "But," Corporation member Grenville Clark reminded him, "Eliot was a chemist, and our best president too." "I know," replied Whitehead, "but Eliot was a bad chemist."[54] Clark was very much responsible for Conant's election.[55]

On October 9, 1933, Conant became the

S.B. One of his first efforts at reform was to attempt to abolish this distinction.[59] But in 1937 he wrote:

I do not see how one can make very much headway as a student ... of history and literature without a reading knowledge of Latin. I do not see how a person can go very far in any branch of science without a thorough understanding of mathematics, and if the underpinning was bad in school, probably the necessary calculus and so forth would not have been taken during the college years. I know that a man cannot be a research chemist without a reading knowledge of German. It is hard to acquire it as the first language in college.[60]

As a first step to improving the faculty, Conant established a mandatory retirement age of sixty-six, with exceptional faculty members able to remain until age seventy-six. The latter affected two of the university's most eminent scholars,

tenure reform, shifting to an "up or out" policy, under which scholars who were not promoted were terminated. A small number of extra-departmental positions was set aside for outstanding scholars.[62] This policy led junior faculty to revolt, and nearly resulted in Conant's dismissal in 1938.[63] Conant was fond of saying: "Behold the turtle. It makes progress only when it sticks its neck out."[64]

Omar N. Bradley
(fifth from left) in June 1947. Conant sits between Marshall and Bradley.

Other reforms included the abolition of class rankings and

Dudley House was opened to provide non-resident students with increased opportunities for socialization (opportunities provided to resident undergraduates by the twelve Harvard College residential houses).[68]

Conant asked two of his assistant deans,

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was a good measure of academic potential. When they reported that it was, Conant adopted it.[69] He waged a ten-year campaign for the consolidation of testing services, which resulted in the creation of the Educational Testing Service in 1946, with Chauncey as its director.[70] Theodore H. White, a Boston Jewish "meatball" who received a personal letter of introduction from Conant so that he could report on the Chinese Civil War, noted that "Conant was the first president to recognize that meatballs were Harvard men too."[68]
Lowell, Conant's predecessor, had imposed a 15 percent quota on Jewish students in 1922, something Conant had voted to support.[71]

This quota was replaced with geographic distribution preferences, which had the same effect of limiting Jewish admission.

anti-semitism common to his social group and time.[74] When DuPont asked him for an appraisal of the German chemist Max Bergmann, Conant wrote back that Bergmann was "definitely of the Jewish type—rather heavy" with "none of the earmarks of genius".[75][76] Harvard awarded honorary degrees to two notable displaced scholars, Thomas Mann and Albert Einstein, in 1935,[77] but Conant declined to participate in the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced German Scholars.[78] His vision of building Harvard's faculty involved hiring promising American scholars rather than helping refugees. The two most prominent refugee scholars at Harvard, Walter Gropius and Robert Ulich, were not Jewish.[79] Writing in 1979, historian William M. Tuttle Jr. concluded that "Conant's position reflected not only a failure of foresight, but also a failure of compassion and political sensitivity",[80] but added that "Conant was one of the more outspoken anti-Nazis in the United States from 1933 to the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939.[81] Stephen H. Norwood, writing in 2004, observed that "This, however, was hardly the case."[82] Norwood noted that while Conant was not an apologist for the Nazi regime, he repeatedly failed to speak out.[83]

In 1934, Harvard-educated German businessman

MIT students were arrested. Conant made a personal plea for clemency that resulted in two women being acquitted, but six men and a woman were sentenced to six months in jail.[90] They were later pardoned by the Governor of Massachusetts, Joseph B. Ely.[91]

When the

University of Berlin awarded an honorary degree in 1934 to American legal scholar and Dean of Harvard Law School Roscoe Pound, who had toured Germany earlier that year and made no secret of his admiration for the Nazi regime,[92] Conant refused to order Pound not to accept it, and attended the informal award ceremony at Harvard where Pound was presented with the degree by Hans Luther, the German ambassador to the United States.[93][94]

What Conant feared most was disruption to Harvard's tercentennial celebrations in 1936, but there was no trouble despite the presence of

socialist and a class traitor.[95][96] Privately, Conant approved of the New Deal and expressed admiration for Roosevelt's goals. He invited Roosevelt to speak at the tercentennial celebrations.[96] This did not sit well with Lowell, and it was only with difficulty that Lowell was persuaded to be presiding officer at an event at which Roosevelt spoke.[97] The parallels between Roosevelt's New Deal and Conant's advocacy of meritocracy and of education as a means of social mobility did not escape notice.[98][99] Conant recognized that education in America contributed to social stratification rather than breaking it down, and that educational opportunity needed to be extended to areas where it was deficient, such as rural areas, small towns and inner cities. He advocated for federal interventions, since these areas were often poor and lacking in the funds needed to improve education, and that they were economically and socially stratified with political and taxation structures that reinforced social stratification.[100]

Conant sought to enhance the liberal education of Harvard students. He toyed with the notion of requiring PhD candidates to study an area outside their speciality.[101] One obstacle was the organization of faculty into specialized departments that had little contact with each other.[102] In 1935, he attempted to break down the specialization of academic by creating non-departmental university professorships for scholars whose research crossed the boundaries of multiple disciplines.[103][104] Undergraduates were required to take general education courses, of which a proportion had to be outside their area of concentration. He took a particular interest in establishing a history of science graduate program and a history of science course for nonscientists.[105]

Although he had no daughters and little interest in the education of women, the exigencies of World War II meant reduced numbers of male students, and this propelled Conant in that direction. In June 1943, he concluded an agreement with Radcliffe College, the women's college associated with Harvard, for Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences to assume responsibility for the instruction of Radcliffe students. Initially there were separate but identical undergraduate courses for Harvard and Radcliffe students, but this gave way to coeducational classes.[106][62] It was during his presidency that the first class of women were admitted to Harvard Medical School in 1945, and Harvard Law School in 1950.[107]

National Defense Research Committee

Further information: National Defense Research Committee
Karl T. Compton, and Alfred L. Loomis at the University of California, Berkeley
in 1940

In June 1940, with

Carnegie Institution of Washington, recruited Conant to the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC),[108] although he remained president of Harvard.[109] Bush envisaged the NDRC as bringing scientists together to "conduct research for the creation and improvement of instrumentalities, methods and materials of warfare."[110] Although the United States had not yet entered the war, Conant was not alone in his conviction that Nazi Germany had to be stopped, and that the United States would inevitably become embroiled in the conflict. The immediate task, as Conant saw it, was therefore to organize American science for war.[108] He became head of the NDRC's Division B, the division responsible for bombs, fuels, gases and chemicals.[111] On June 28, 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD),[112] with Bush as its director. Conant succeeded Bush as chairman of the NDRC, which was subsumed into the OSRD. Roger Adams, a contemporary of Conant's at Harvard in the 1910s, succeeded him as head of Division B.[113] Conant became the driving force of the NDRC on personnel and policy matters.[114] The NDRC would work hand in hand with the Army and Navy's research efforts, supplementing rather than supplanting them.[110] It was specifically charged with investigating nuclear fission.[115]

In February 1941, Roosevelt sent Conant to Britain as head of a mission that also included

Doctor of Laws degree on Conant in absentia.[119][120]

Conant subsequently moved to restrict cooperation with Britain on nuclear energy, particularly its post-war aspects, and became involved in heated negotiations with

Leslie R. Groves as project director. A meeting that included Conant decided Groves should be answerable to a small committee called the Military Policy Committee, chaired by Bush, with Conant as his alternate. Thus, Conant remained involved in the administration of the Manhattan Project at its highest levels.[126]

Vannevar Bush, Conant, Major General Leslie Groves and Colonel Franklin Matthias at the Hanford Engineer Works in July 1945

In August 1942, Roosevelt appointed Conant to the Rubber Survey Committee. Chaired by

Buna-S. None had been manufactured on the scale now required, and there was pressure from agricultural interests to choose a process which involved making raw materials from farm products.[131] The Rubber Survey Committee made a series of recommendations, including the appointment of a rubber director, and the construction and operation of 51 factories to supply the materials needed for synthetic rubber production.[127] Technical problems dogged the program through 1943, but by late 1944 plants were in operation with an annual capacity of over a million tons, most of which was Buna-S.[132]

In May 1945, Conant became part of the

bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by figures like Norman Cousins and Reinhold Niebuhr. He played an important behind-the-scenes role in shaping public opinion by instigating and then editing an influential February 1947 Harper's article entitled "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb". Written by former Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson with the help of McGeorge Bundy,[136] the article stressed that the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were used to avoid the possibility of "over a million casualties",[137] from a figure found in the estimates given to the Joint Chiefs of Staff by its Joint Planning Staff in 1945.[138]

Cold War

Three smiling men in suits
Vannevar Bush watches as U.S. President Harry S. Truman presents Conant with the civilian Medal for Merit (with bronze palm) in 1948.

The

communists, including Oppenheimer's brother Frank Oppenheimer, his wife Kitty and his former girlfriend Jean Tatlock, Bush and Conant reassured Lilienthal that they had known about it when they had placed Oppenheimer in charge at Los Alamos in 1942. With such expressions of support, AEC issued Oppenheimer a Q clearance, granting him access to atomic secrets.[140]

By September 1948, the

denominational schools that he observed in Australia during his visit there in 1951.[145] He called for increased federal spending on education, and higher taxes to redistribute wealth.[144] His thinking was outlined in his books Education in a Divided World in 1948,[146] and Education and Liberty in 1951.[147] In 1952, he went further and endorsed the dismissal of academics who invoked the Fifth under questioning by the House Un-American Activities Committee.[148]

National Science Board Members in July 1951. Conant is front and center.

A sign of Conant's declining influence occurred in 1950, when he was passed over for the post of President of the National Academy of Sciences in favor of

Science Advisory Committee, but it would not develop into an influential body until the Eisenhower administration.[153]

Conant's experience with the Manhattan Project convinced him that the public needed a better understanding of science, and he moved to revitalize the history and philosophy of science program at Harvard. He took the lead personally by teaching a new undergraduate course, Natural Science 4, "On Understanding Science". His course notes became the basis for a book of the same name, published in 1948.[154] In 1952, he began teaching another undergraduate course, Philosophy 150, "A Philosophy of Science".[155] In his teachings and writing on the philosophy of science, he drew heavily on those of his Harvard colleague Willard Van Orman Quine.[156] Conant contributed four chapters to the 1957 Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science, including an account of the overthrow of the phlogiston theory.[154] In 1951, he published Science and Common Sense, in which he attempted to explain the ways of scientists to laymen.[157] Conant's ideas about scientific progress would come under attack by his own protégés, notably Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Conant commented on Kuhn's manuscript in draft form.[154]

Allied High Commissioner

In April 1951, Conant was approached by

Dwight Eisenhower was elected president in 1952, Conant was again offered the job by the new Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, and this time he accepted. At the Harvard Board of Overseers meeting on January 12, 1952, Conant announced that he would retire in September 1953 after twenty years at Harvard, having reached the pension age of sixty.[158][159]

In Germany, there were major issues to be decided. Germany was still occupied by the Soviet Union, the United States, Great Britain and France. Dealing with the wartime allies was a major task for the high commissioner. West Germany, made up of the zones occupied by the three western powers, had been granted control of its own affairs, except for defense and foreign policy, in 1949. While most Germans wanted a neutral and reunited Germany, the Eisenhower administration sought to reduce its defense spending by rearming Germany and replacing American troops with Germans. Meanwhile, the House Un-American Activities Committee slammed Conant's staff as communist sympathizers and called for books by communist authors held in United States Information Agency (USIA) libraries in Germany to be burned.[160]

The first crisis to occur on Conant's watch was the

pan-European military. This seemed to be the only way that German rearmament would be accepted, but opposition from France killed the plan. In what Conant considered a minor miracle, France's actions cleared the way for West Germany to become part of NATO with its own army.[162]

At noon on May 6, 1955, Conant, along with the high commissioners from Britain and France, signed the documents ending Allied control of West Germany, admitting it to NATO, and allowing it to rearm. The office of the United States High Commissioner was abolished and Conant became instead the first

United States Ambassador to West Germany.[163] His role was now to encourage West Germany to build up its forces, while reassuring the Germans that doing so would not result in a United States withdrawal.[164] Being fluent in German, Conant was able to give speeches to German audiences. He paid numerous visits to German educational and scientific organizations.[165]

While high commissioner, Conant approved the release of many major and other German war criminals after serving only a fraction of their sentences, against protests from American political leaders and veterans' organizations (some of those sentenced had murdered American prisoners), accusing him of "moral amnesia". Such criticism continued when as ambassador he supported the West German government's leniency toward former Nazis.[166]

Carnegie Corporation grant recipient and author

Glenn Seaborg, President Richard Nixon, presents the 1969 Atomic Pioneers Award to the three recipients, Vannevar Bush, Conant and Leslie Groves, on February 27, 1970.[167]

Conant returned to the United States in February 1957, where he leased an apartment on the Upper East Side in New York City.[168]

Between 1957 and 1965, the

The American High School Today, better known as the Conant Report. This became a best seller, resulting in Conant's appearance on the cover of Time magazine on September 14, 1959.[170][171] In it, Conant called for a number of reforms, including the consolidation of high schools into larger bodies that could offer a broader range of curriculum choices. Although it was slammed by critics of the American system, who hoped for a system of education based on the European model, it did lead to a wave of reforms across the country.[172]

His subsequent Slums and Suburbs in 1961 was far more controversial in its treatment of racial issues. Regarding

busing as impractical, Conant urged Americans "to accept de facto segregated schools".[173][174] This did not go over well with civil rights groups, and by 1964 Conant was forced to admit that he had been wrong.[173] In The Education of American Teachers in 1963, Conant found much to criticize about the training of teachers. Most controversial was his defense of the arrangement by which teachers were certified by independent bodies rather than the teacher training colleges.[172]

Presidential Medal of Freedom and other recognition

On December 6, 1963, President

Lyndon Johnson presented Conant with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, with special distinction. He was selected for the award by President John F. Kennedy, but the ceremony was delayed prior to Kennedy's assassination.[175]

In February 1970, President

Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Britain in 1948, and he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957. He was also awarded over 50 honorary degrees,[177] and was posthumously inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame in 2000.[6]

Later years and death

Between 1965 and 1969, Conant, living with a heart condition, worked on his biography, My Several Lives.

Drew Faust, in 2007, it contained a letter in which Conant expressed his hopes and fears for the future. "You will ... be in charge of a more prosperous and significant institution than the one over which I have the honor to preside", he wrote. "That [Harvard] will maintain the traditions of academic freedom, of tolerance for heresy, I feel sure."[182]

Legacy

Conant is the namesake of James B. Conant High School in Hoffman Estates, Illinois,[183] and James B. Conant Elementary School in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.[184]

Graduate students

Former graduate students of Conant include:

  • Louis Fieser – organic chemist and professor emeritus at Harvard University renowned as the inventor of a militarily effective form of napalm. His award-winning research included work on blood-clotting agents including the first synthesis of vitamin K, synthesis and screening of quinones as antimalarial drugs, work with steroids leading to the synthesis of cortisone, and study of the nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[185]
  • Benjamin S. Garvey – noted chemist at BF Goodrich who worked on the development of synthetic rubber, contributed to understanding of vulcanization, and developed early techniques for small scale evaluation of rubbers.[186]
  • Frank Westheimer – was the Morris Loeb Professor of Chemistry Emeritus at Harvard University.[187]

Bibliography

Notes

  1. ^ a b Kistiakowsky & Westheimer 1979, p. 208
  2. ^ Bartlett 1983, pp. 91–92.
  3. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 17–18.
  4. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 20.
  5. ^ a b Hershberg 1993, pp. 27–31.
  6. ^ a b "Fraternity – Awards – Hall of Fame – Alpha Chi Sigma". Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity. Retrieved April 24, 2013.
  7. ^ Saltzman 2003, p. 86.
  8. ^ Halberstam, Michael J. (June 19, 1952). "James Bryant Conant: The Right Man". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
  9. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 38–39.
  10. ^ Conant 1970, pp. 44–45.
  11. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 44–48.
  12. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 50–53.
  13. ^ a b c "Array of Contemporary American Physicists – James Conant". American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on August 30, 2010. Retrieved April 28, 2012.
  14. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 55.
  15. ^ Conant 1970, p. 30.
  16. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
  17. ^ a b c Saltzman 2003, pp. 89–90.
  18. ^ a b c Bartlett 1983, pp. 94–97.
  19. ^ Conant published a series of three papers on the reaction of inorganic iodide with organic halides:
  20. ISSN 0365-9496
    .
  21. ^ Wang 2010, pp. 1060–1063.
  22. S2CID 95486966
    .
  23. ^ Kistiakowsky published a series of six papers in the Journal of the American Chemical Society on the heats of organic reactions; the first and last papers in that series are:
  24. ^ a b Kistiakowsky & Westheimer 1979, p. 213.
  25. ^ Kistiakowsky & Westheimer 1979, p. 212.
  26. ^ Hall & Conant 1927, p. 3047.
  27. ISSN 0002-7863
    .
  28. ISSN 0002-7863
    .
  29. ISSN 0002-7863
    .
  30. ^ Stoker 2012, pp. 272–275.
  31. ISSN 0002-7863
    .
  32. ISSN 0002-7863
    .
  33. ^ Kistiakowsky & Westheimer 1979, p. 212-213.
  34. ^ Kistiakowsky & Westheimer 1979, p. 214.
  35. PMID 17836678
    .
  36. S2CID 41018863
    .
  37. S2CID 4103199
    .
  38. ^ Conant published a series of fourteen papers in the Journal of the American Chemical Society on chlorophyll; the first and last papers in that series are:
  39. ISSN 0075-4617
    .
  40. ^ "Conant, James Bryant – Proposal for Foreign Membership". Royal Society. Retrieved December 25, 2012.
  41. ^ Conant 1970, p. 60.
  42. ISSN 0021-9258
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  43. ISSN 0021-9258
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  44. PMID 14843826
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  45. ^ Bartlett 1983, pp. 121–124.
  46. ^ a b Saltzman 2003, p. 93.
  47. ^ "Nichols Chemistry Medal Given Conant for Research". The Harvard Crimson. January 22, 1932. Retrieved April 28, 2012.
  48. ^ "President Conant Wins Priestley Medal of ACS". The Harvard Crimson. September 12, 1944. Retrieved April 28, 2012.
  49. ^ "Charles Lathrop Parsons Award". American Chemical Society. Retrieved January 14, 2016.
  50. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter C" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved April 14, 2011.
  51. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
  52. Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina
    . Retrieved March 27, 2013.
  53. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 70–75.
  54. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 75.
  55. ^ Hill 2014, pp. 85–86.
  56. ^ a b "James Bryant Conant". Harvard University. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved April 28, 2012.
  57. ^ "President Conant Is Installed in Office". Harvard Library Guides. October 13, 1933. Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  58. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 77.
  59. ^ Conant 1970, pp. 419–420.
  60. ^ Conant 1970, p. 189.
  61. ^ Urban 2020, p. 26.
  62. ^ a b c Bartlett 1983, p. 98.
  63. ^ Bartlett 1983, pp. 107–109.
  64. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 89.
  65. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 79.
  66. ^ Conant 1970, pp. 399–402.
  67. ^ "Nieman Fellowships – Alumni Fellows". Nieman Foundation. Retrieved December 21, 2012.
  68. ^ a b c Hershberg 1993, p. 80.
  69. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 81.
  70. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 707.
  71. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 58–59.
  72. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 81–83.
  73. ^ Norwood 2004, p. 191.
  74. ^ Keller & Keller 2001, p. 49.
  75. ^ Conant 2017, p. 143.
  76. ^ Norwood 2004, p. 192.
  77. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 88.
  78. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 84.
  79. ^ Urban 2020, p. 45.
  80. ^ Tuttle 1979, p. 54.
  81. ^ Tuttle 1979, p. 60.
  82. ^ Norwood 2004, p. 189.
  83. ^ Urban & Smith 2015, p. 159.
  84. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 85–86.
  85. ^ Conant 2017, p. 138.
  86. ^ "Corporation Will Decide Upon Fate of Hanfstaengl Donation". The Harvard Crimson. June 8, 1934. Retrieved April 30, 2012.
  87. ^ Conant 1970, p. 142.
  88. ^ Conant 1970, p. 144.
  89. ^ "Hanfstaengl". The Harvard Crimson. February 13, 1936. Retrieved April 30, 2012.
  90. ^ "Sentences Given to Seven in The Anti-Hanfstaengl Case". The Harvard Crimson. October 24, 1934. Retrieved April 30, 2012.
  91. ^ Conant 2017, p. 140.
  92. ^ "Beard Fears That German Propagandists Seek Support of Harvard And Other Universities". The Harvard Crimson. October 19, 1934. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
  93. ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 87.
  94. ^ "Dean Pound Gets Degree". The Harvard Crimson. September 20, 1934. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
  95. ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 90–91.
  96. ^ a b Conant 2017, p. 151.
  97. ^ Conant 1970, p. 153.
  98. ^ Conant 2017, pp. 150–151.
  99. ^ "Dr. Conant Urges College For All". The New York Times. January 26, 1934. p. 19. Retrieved August 4, 2023.
  100. ^ Urban 2020, pp. 90–91.
  101. ^ Urban 2020, pp. 59, 105.
  102. ^ Urban 2020, p. 103.
  103. ^ Urban 2020, pp. 36–37.
  104. ^ "University Professorships". Harvard University. Retrieved September 16, 2023.
  105. ^ Urban 2020, pp. 114–121.
  106. ^ Urban 2020, p. 78.
  107. ^ "Women's History Month 2012" (PDF). Department of Defense Education Activity. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 4, 2012. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
  108. ^ a b Hershberg 1993, p. 126.
  109. ^ Stewart 1948, p. 26.
  110. ^ a b Stewart 1948, p. 8.
  111. ^ Stewart 1948, p. 10.
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References

External links

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Academic offices
Preceded by
Abbott Lawrence Lowell
 23rd President of Harvard University
1933–1953 		Succeeded by
Nathan Marsh Pusey
Preceded by
Anton J. Carlson
 President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
1945 		Succeeded by
C. F. Kettering
Government offices
Preceded by Chairman, National Defense Research Committee
1941–1947 		Extinct
Diplomatic posts
Preceded by American High Commissioner for Occupied Germany
1953–1955 		Extinct
Preceded by
Leland B. Morris
(as chargé d'affaires in 1941)
United States Ambassador to Germany

1955–1957 		Succeeded by
Awards
Preceded by Sylvanus Thayer Award recipient
1965 		Succeeded by

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