James B. Weaver
James B. Weaver | |
---|---|
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Iowa's 6th district | |
In office March 4, 1885 – March 3, 1889 | |
Preceded by | John C. Cook |
Succeeded by | John F. Lacey |
In office March 4, 1879 – March 3, 1881 | |
Preceded by | Ezekiel S. Sampson |
Succeeded by | Marsena E. Cutts |
Personal details | |
Born | James Baird Weaver June 12, 1833 Dayton, Ohio, U.S. |
Died | February 12, 1912 Des Moines, Iowa, U.S. | (aged 78)
Resting place | Woodland Cemetery |
Political party |
|
Spouse |
Clarrisa Vinson (m. 1858) |
Children | 8 |
Education | 2nd Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment |
Battles/wars | American Civil War |
James Baird Weaver (June 12, 1833 – February 12, 1912) was an American politician in Iowa who was a member of the United States House of Representatives and two-time candidate for President of the United States.
Born in Ohio, he moved to Iowa as a boy when his family claimed a homestead on the frontier. He became politically active as a young man and was an advocate for farmers and laborers. He joined and quit several political parties in the furtherance of the progressive causes in which he believed. After serving in the Union Army in the American Civil War, Weaver returned to Iowa and worked for the election of Republican candidates.
After several unsuccessful attempts at Republican nominations to various offices, and growing dissatisfied with the conservative wing of the party, in 1877 Weaver switched to the Greenback Party, which supported increasing the money supply and regulating big business. As a Greenbacker with Democratic support, Weaver won election to the House in 1878. The Greenbackers nominated Weaver for president in 1880, but he received only 3.3 percent of the popular vote. After several more attempts at elected office, he was again elected to the House in 1884 and 1886. In Congress, he worked for expansion of the money supply and for the opening of Indian Territory to white settlement.
As the Greenback Party fell apart, a new anti-big business third party, the People's Party ("Populists"), arose. Weaver helped to organize the party and was their nominee for president in 1892. This time he was more successful and gained 8.5 percent of the popular vote and won five states, but still fell far short of victory. The Populists merged with the Democrats by the end of the 19th century, and Weaver went with them, promoting the candidacy of William Jennings Bryan for president in 1896, 1900, and 1908. After serving as mayor of his home town, Colfax, Iowa, Weaver retired from his pursuit of elective office. He died in Iowa in 1912. Most of Weaver's political goals remained unfulfilled at his death, but many came to pass in the following decades.
Early years
James Baird Weaver was born in Dayton, Ohio, on June 12, 1833, the fifth of thirteen children of Abram Weaver and Susan Imlay Weaver.[1] Weaver's father was a farmer, also born in Ohio, and a descendant of Revolutionary War veterans.[2] He married Weaver's mother, who was from New Jersey, in 1824.[2] Shortly after Weaver's birth, in 1835, the family moved to a farm nine miles north of Cassopolis, Michigan.[1] In 1842, the family moved again to the Iowa Territory to await the opening of former Sac and Fox land to white settlement the following year.[3] They claimed a homestead along the Chequest Creek in Davis County.[3] Abram Weaver built a house and farmed his new land until 1848, when the family moved to Bloomfield, the county seat.[4]
Abram Weaver, a
Upon his return, Weaver worked briefly as a store clerk before resuming the study of law. He enrolled in the
Weaver traveled around southern Iowa in 1858, giving speeches on behalf of his new party's candidates.[13] That summer, he married Clarrisa (Clara) Vinson, a schoolteacher from nearby Keosauqua, Iowa, whom he had courted since he returned from Cincinnati.[13] The marriage lasted until Weaver's death in 1912 and the couple had eight children.[14] After the wedding, Weaver started a law firm with Hosea Horn and continued his involvement in Republican politics.[14] He gave several speeches on behalf of Samuel J. Kirkwood for governor in 1859 in a campaign that focused heavily on the slavery debate; although the Republicans lost Weaver's Davis County, Kirkwood narrowly won the election.[15] The next year, Weaver served as a delegate to the state convention and, although not a national delegate, traveled with the Iowa delegation to the 1860 Republican National Convention, where Abraham Lincoln was nominated.[16] Lincoln carried Iowa and won the election, but Southern states responded to the Republican victory by seceding from the Union. By April 1861, the American Civil War had begun.[17]
Civil War
After the
Weaver's first chance at action came in February 1862, when the 2nd Iowa joined Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant's army outside the Confederate Fort Donelson in Tennessee.[23] Weaver's company was in the thick of the fight, which he described as a "holocaust to the demon of battles",[23] and he took a minor wound in the arm.[23] The rebels surrendered the next day, the most important Union victory of the war to date.[24] The 2nd Iowa next joined other units in the area at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, to mass for a major assault deeper into the South.[25] Confederate forces met them there, in the Battle of Shiloh. Weaver's regiment was in the center of the Union lines, in the area later known as the "hornets' nest", and were forced to retreat amid fierce fighting.[25] The next day, the Union forces turned the tide and forced the rebels off the field in what Weaver called a "perfect rout".[26] The carnage at Shiloh (some 20,000 killed and wounded on both sides) was on a scale never before seen in American warfare, and both sides learned that the war would end neither quickly nor easily.[27]
After Shiloh, Weaver and the 2nd Iowa slowly advanced to
Republican politics
Soon after returning from the war Weaver became editor of a pro-Republican Bloomfield newspaper, the Weekly Union Guard.
Weaver's work for the party led many to support his nomination to represent Iowa's 6th congressional district in the federal House of Representatives in 1874.[38] Many party insiders, however, were wary of Weaver's association with the Prohibition movement and preferred to remain uncommitted on the divisive issue.[38] At the convention, Weaver led on the first ballot, but ultimately lost the nomination by one vote to Ezekiel S. Sampson, a local judge.[39] Weaver's allies attributed his loss to "the meanest kind of wire pulling",[40] but Weaver shrugged off the defeat and aimed instead at the gubernatorial nomination in 1875.[40] He launched a vigorous effort, courted delegates around the state, and explicitly endorsed Prohibition and greater state control of railroad rates.[41] Weaver attracted many delegates' support, but alienated those who were friendly to the railroads and wished to avoid the liquor issue.[41] Opposition was scattered among several lesser-known candidates, mostly members of Senator William B. Allison's conservative wing of the party.[42] They united at the convention when a delegate unexpectedly nominated former governor Kirkwood.[42] The nomination carried easily and, after Allison's associates persuaded him to accept it, Kirkwood was nominated, and went on to win the election.[42] In a further defeat, the delegates refused to endorse Prohibition in the party platform.[43] Weaver had small consolation in a nomination to the state Senate, but he lost to his Democratic opponent in the election that fall.[44]
Switch to the Greenback Party
After his defeats in 1875 Weaver grew disenchanted with the Republican party, not only because it had spurned him, but also because of the policy choices of the dominant Allison faction.
In the 1876 presidential campaign the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes and the Democrats chose Samuel J. Tilden. Both candidates opposed the issuance of more greenbacks (candidates who favored the gold-backed currency were called "hard money" supporters, while the Greenbackers' policy of encouraging inflation was known as "soft money".)[51] Weaver was impressed with the Greenbackers and their candidate, Peter Cooper, but while he advocated some soft-money policies, he declined the Greenback nomination for Congress and remained a Republican; he campaigned for Hayes in the election that year.[52] In 1877 Weaver attended the Republican state convention and saw the state party adopt a soft-money platform that also favored Prohibition.[53] The gubernatorial nominee, however, was John H. Gear, an opponent of Prohibition who had worked to defeat Weaver in his quest for the governorship two years earlier.[53] After initially supporting Gear Weaver joined the Greenback party in August.[46] He gave speeches on behalf of his new party, debated former allies across the state, and establishing himself as a prominent advocate for the Greenback cause.[54]
Congress
In May 1878 Weaver accepted the Greenback nomination for the House of Representatives in the 6th district.
Weaver entered the
In 1880 Weaver prepared a resolution stating that the government, not banks, should issue currency and determine its volume, and that the federal debt should be repaid in whatever currency the government chose, not just gold as the law then required.[65] The proposed resolution would never be allowed to emerge from committees dominated by Democrats and Republicans, so Weaver planned to introduce it directly to the whole House for debate, as members were permitted to do every Monday.[65] Rather than debate a proposition that would expose the monetary divide in the Democratic Party, Speaker Samuel J. Randall refused to recognize Weaver when he rose to propose the resolution.[65] Weaver returned to the floor each succeeding Monday, with the same result, and the press took notice of Randall's obstruction.[65] Eventually, Republican James A. Garfield of Ohio interceded with Randall to recognize Weaver, which he reluctantly did on April 5, 1880.[66] The Republicans, mostly united behind hard money, largely voted against the measure, while many Democrats joined the Greenbackers voting in favor. Despite support by the soft-money Democrats, the resolution was defeated 84–117 with many members abstaining.[67] Although he lost the vote, Weaver had promoted the monetary issue in the national consciousness. [67]
Presidential election of 1880
By 1879, the Greenback coalition had divided, with the faction most prominent in the South and West, led by Marcus M. "Brick" Pomeroy, splitting from the main party.[68] Pomeroy's faction, called the "Union Greenback Labor Party", was more radical and emphasized its independence, and suggested that Eastern Greenbackers were likely to "sell out the party at any time to the Democrats".[68] Weaver remained with the rump Greenback party, often called the "National Greenback Party", and the national reputation he had earned in Congress made him one of the party's leading presidential hopefuls.[69]
The Union Greenbackers held their convention first and nominated
In a departure from the political traditions of the day Weaver himself campaigned, making speeches across the South in July and August.[73] As the Greenbackers had the only ticket that included a Southerner, Weaver and Chambers hoped to make inroads in the South.[74] As the campaign progressed, however, Weaver's message of racial inclusion drew violent protests in the South, as the Greenbackers faced the same obstacles the Republicans did in the face of increasing black disenfranchisement.[75] In the autumn Weaver campaigned in the North, but the Greenbackers' lack of support was compounded by Weaver's refusal to run a fusion ticket in states where Democratic and Greenbacker strength might have combined to outvote the Republicans.[76]
Weaver received 305,997 votes and no electoral votes, compared to 4,446,158 for the winner, Republican James A. Garfield, and 4,444,260 for Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock.[77] The party was strongest in the West and South, but in no state did Weaver receive more than 12 percent of the vote (his best state was Texas, with 11.7 percent); his nationwide total was just 3 percent.[78] That figure represented an improvement over the Greenback vote of 1876, but to Weaver, who expected twice as many votes as he received, it was a disappointment.[79]
Office-seeker and party promoter
After the election Weaver returned to the lame-duck session of Congress and proposed an unsuccessful constitutional amendment that would have provided for the direct election of Senators.[80][b] After his term expired in March he resumed his speaking tour, promoting the Greenback Party across the nation.[81] He and Edward H. Gillette, another Iowa Greenback Congressman, bought the Iowa Tribune in 1882 to help spread the Greenback message.[82] That same year, Weaver ran for his old 6th district seat in the House against the incumbent Republican, Marsena E. Cutts.[83] This time the Democrats and Greenbackers ran separate candidates, and Weaver finished a distant second.[83] Cutts died before taking office, and the Republicans offered to let Weaver run unopposed in the special election if he rejoined their party; he declined, and John C. Cook, a Democrat, won the seat.[83]
In 1883 Weaver was the Greenback nominee for governor of Iowa.
Return to Congress
Unlike in his previous congressional term, when Weaver entered the 49th United States Congress, he was the only Greenback member.[86] The new president, Democrat Grover Cleveland, was friendly to Weaver, and asked his advice on Iowa patronage.[87] As it had been for years, Weaver's chief concern was with the nation's money and finance, and the relationship between labor and capital.[88]
In 1885 Weaver proposed the creation of a
Weaver also took up the issue of white settlement in
The Committee on Territories again rejected Weaver's bill, but approved a compromise measure that opened the Unassigned Lands, Cherokee Outlet, and Neutral Strip to settlement.[97] Congress debated the bill over several months, while the tribes announced their resistance to their lands becoming a territory; according to an 1884 Supreme Court decision, Elk v. Wilkins, Native Americans were not citizens, and thus would have no voting rights in the new territory.[98] When Weaver returned to Iowa to campaign for re-election, the bill was still in limbo.[99] Running again on a Democratic–Greenback fusion ticket, Weaver was re-elected to the House in 1886 with a 618-vote majority.[100]
In the lame-duck session of 1887 Congress passed the
Farmers' Alliance and a new party
The new president, Republican Benjamin Harrison, set April 22, 1889, as the date when the rush for the Unassigned Lands would begin.[108] Weaver arrived at a railroad station[d] in the territory in March with an eye toward relocating there.[108] The would-be homesteaders welcomed him with great acclaim.[108] Although settlers were not allowed to stake claims before noon on April 22, many scouted out the land ahead of time, and even marked off informal claims; Weaver was among them.[108] After the rush, settlers who had waited challenged the claims of the "Sooners" who had entered early.[109] Weaver's identification with the group harmed his popularity in the territory.[109] His claim was ultimately denied, and he returned to Iowa in 1890.[109]
Weaver and his wife moved their household in 1890 from Bloomfield to Colfax, near Des Moines, as the former Congressman took up more active management of the Iowa Tribune.[110] The Greenback and Union Labor parties were defunct, but he still proselytized for their ideals.[111] In August 1890 Weaver addressed a convention in Des Moines where former Greenbackers and Laborites gathered, although he declined their nomination for Congress.[112] The economic conditions that had created the Greenback party had not gone away; many farmers and laborers believed their situation had gotten worse since the Long Depression began in 1873.[113] Many farmers had joined the Farmers' Alliance, which sought to promote soft-money ideas on a non-partisan basis; rather than create a third party, they endorsed major party candidates who supported their ideas and hired speakers to educate the public.[114] Alliance-backed candidates did well in the 1890 elections, especially in the South, where Democrats endorsed by the Alliance won 44 seats.[114]
Alliance members gathered that December in
Presidential election of 1892
The following year, Weaver accepted the decision to form a new party (called the People's Party or Populist Party) and published a book, A Call to Action, detailing the party's principles and castigating the "few haughty millionaires who are gathering up the riches of the new world".[116] He attended their convention in Omaha, Nebraska, in July 1892.[117] After Polk's sudden death in June Weaver was considered the front-runner for the nomination.[117] He was nominated on the first ballot, easily besting his closest rival, Senator James H. Kyle of South Dakota.[118] Weaver accepted the nomination and promised to "visit every state in the Union and carry the banner of the people into the enemy's camp".[119] The vice presidential nomination went to James G. Field, a Confederate veteran and former Attorney General of Virginia.[118]
The
Weaver embarked on a speaking tour across the northern plains and Pacific coast states.[125] In late August he turned South, hoping to break the Democrats' grip on those states.[126] As in 1880, the issue of race hurt Weaver among white Southern voters, as he sought to attract black voters by urging cooperation between white and black farmers and calling for an end to lynchings.[126] Weaver drew good crowds in the South, but he and his wife were also subjected to abuse from hecklers.[127] Southern Democrats depicted Weaver as a threat to the conservative Democrats in power there; with the increasing disenfranchisement of black voters, this was to prove fatal to the Populists' hopes in the South.[128]
On election day Cleveland triumphed, carrying the entire South and many Northern states.[129] Weaver's performance was better than that of any third-party candidate since the Civil War,[e] as he won over a million votes – 8.5 percent of the total cast nationwide.[130] In four states, he won a plurality, giving the Populists the electoral votes of Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, and Nevada along with two more votes from North Dakota and Oregon: twenty-two in total.[130] Weaver believed the performance "a surprising success",[131] and thought it portended good results in future elections.[131] "Unaided by money," he said afterward, "our grand young party has made an enviable record and achieved a surprising success at the polls."[132]
Populist elder statesman
Weaver believed that the Populists' embrace of free silver would be the main issue to attract new members to the party.[133] After the election he attended a meeting of the American Bimetallic League, a pro-silver group, and gave speeches advocating an inflationist monetary policy.[134] Meanwhile the Panic of 1893 caused bank failures, factory closures, and general economic upheaval.[134] As the federal gold reserves dwindled, President Cleveland convinced Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which ensured the government would purchase less silver for coining and which further disconcerted free silver supporters.[134] While depletion of gold reserves slowed after the repeal, the country's economy still floundered.[135]
The next year, 1894, saw pay cuts and labor disturbances, including a
Weaver privately supported Bryan's quest for the Democratic nomination in 1896, which their convention awarded him on the fifth ballot.[139] When the Populist convention gathered the next month in Chicago, they divided between endorsing the silverite Democrat and preserving their new party's independence.[140] Weaver backed the former course, holding the issues the party stood for to be of more importance than the party itself.[141] A majority of delegates agreed, but without the enthusiasm that had marked their convention of four years earlier.[142][f] At the same time, Weaver joined with anti-fusionists to keep the Populist platform from deviating from the party's ideological principles.[144] Against the fusion candidate stood Republican William McKinley of Ohio, a hard-money conservative. Bryan succeeded in uniting the South and West, Weaver's longtime dream, but with the more populous North solidly behind McKinley, Bryan lost the election.[145]
Despite the loss, Weaver still believed the Populist cause would triumph. He agreed to be nominated one last time for his old 6th district House seat on a Democratic-Populist fusion ticket.[145] As he had ten years earlier, Republican John Lacey defeated Weaver.[145] In 1900 Weaver attended a convention of fusionist Populists in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, the party having split on the issue of cooperation with the Democrats.[146] The fusionists backed Bryan, the Democratic nominee, but he lost again to McKinley, this time by a greater margin.[146] The following year, Weaver was elected to office for the last time as the mayor of his hometown, Colfax, Iowa, after defeating Republican P. H. Cragen and served in that position until 1903.[147][148]
Later years and death
The Republican Party's popularity after the victory in the Spanish–American War led Weaver, for the first time, to doubt that populist values would eventually prevail.[149] With the demise of the Populist Party, Weaver became a Democrat and was a delegate to the 1904 Democratic National Convention.[149] He was displeased at the party's nominee, Alton B. Parker, whom he thought "plutocratic",[150] but Weaver supported his unsuccessful campaign nevertheless.[150] He gave serious consideration to running for the House again that year but decided against it.[151] In 1908 he supported Bryan's third campaign as the Democratic nominee for president, but it, too, was unsuccessful.[150]
That same year, Weaver and his wife, Clara, celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary, surrounded by six of their children.[152] The Iowa legislature honored him in 1909 and hung a portrait of him in the Iowa State Historical Building.[153] He wrote a history of Jasper County, Iowa, where he lived, which was published in 1912.[154] Weaver planned to campaign on behalf of Democratic candidates that year but did not have the chance.[155] On February 6 he died of heart failure at his daughter's house in Des Moines after being sick for ten days.[156] After a funeral at the First Methodist Church in Des Moines, Weaver was buried in that city's Woodland Cemetery.[157] The last letter he wrote was an endorsement of Speaker of the House Champ Clark for the Democratic presidential nomination, but he went on to lose the nomination to Woodrow Wilson.[158]
Legacy
Many of Iowa's leading statesmen, including Weaver's former adversaries, praised him at his funeral and in the years thereafter.[157] Fusion with the Democrats had brought Populist policy into the mainstream, and several of the policies for which Weaver fought became law after his death, including the direct election of Senators, a graduated income tax, and a monetary policy not based on the gold standard; others, such as public ownership of the railroads and telephone companies, were never enacted.[159] In a 2008 biography, Robert B. Mitchell wrote that "Weaver's legacy cannot be assessed using conventional measures",[159] as much of what he fought for did not come to pass until after his death.[159] Even so, Mitchell credits Weaver for beginning the political effort that led to those changes: "Weaver's most important legacy in national politics is not what he advocated, or how subsequent reforms worked, but his effect on America's continuing political conversation."[160]
Notes
- ^ Weaver was one of many Union officers granted retroactive brevet promotions after the war ended as a reward for their service. Weaver was nominated for the appointment, to rank from March 13, 1865, by President Andrew Johnson on February 24, 1866, and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on April 10, 1866.[33]
- ^ Before the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913 Senators were chosen by their states' legislatures.
- ^ In 1903 Congress did create a Department of Commerce and Labor; in 1913 a separate Department of Labor was created.
- ^ Oklahoma Station, where the settlers gathered, was the site of the future capital, Oklahoma City.
- Robert M. La Follette, Sr. in 1924, George Wallace in 1968 and Ross Perotin 1992 have exceeded his vote share as a third-party candidate.
- ^ Rather than endorse the Democratic vice presidential candidate, the Populists nominated one of their own, former Congressman Thomas E. Watson of Georgia.[143]
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Sources
Books
- Ackerman, Kenneth D. (2003). Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of President James A. Garfield. New York, New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1151-5.
- Clancy, Herbert J. (1958). The Presidential Election of 1880. Chicago, Illinois: Loyola University Press. ISBN 978-1-258-19190-0.
- Goodwyn, Lawrence (1978). The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America. New York, New York: Galaxy Books. ISBN 0-19-502417-6.
- Haynes, Frederick Emory (1919). James Baird Weaver. Iowa City, Iowa: The State Historical Society of Iowa. OCLC 3733204.
- Lause, Mark A. (2001). The Civil War's Last Campaign: James B. Weaver, the Greenback-Labor Party & the Politics of Race and Section. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-1917-7.
- ISBN 0-345-35942-9.
- Mitchell, Robert B. (2008). Skirmisher: The Life, Times, and Political Career of James B. Weaver. Roseville, Minnesota: Edinborough Press. ISBN 978-1-889020-26-6.
- ISBN 0-691-04517-8.
- Weaver, James Baird (1892). A Call to Action: An Interpretation of the Great Uprising, Its Source and Causes. Des Moines, Iowa: Iowa Printing Co. OCLC 647058228.
Articles
- Colbert, Thomas Burnell (Spring 1978). "Political Fusion in Iowa: The Election of James B. Weaver to Congress in 1878". Arizona and the West. 20 (1): 25–40. JSTOR 40168674.
- Colbert, Thomas Burnell (Autumn 2008). "The Lion of the Land: James B. Weaver, Kansas, and the Oklahoma lands. 1884–1890" (PDF). Kansas History. 31 (3): 176–193.
- Doolen, Richard M. (Winter 1972). ""Brick" Pomeroy and the Greenback Clubs". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 65 (4): 434–450. JSTOR 40191206.
- Newcombe, Alfred W. (March 1946). "Alson J. Streeter: An Agrarian Liberal". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 39 (1): 68–95. JSTOR 40188188.
Further reading
- Colbert, Thomas Burnell (1988). "Disgruntled 'Chronic Office Seeker' or Man of Political Integrity: James Baird Weaver and the Republican Party in Iowa, 1857–1877". Annals of Iowa. 49 (3): 187–207. .
- .
External links
- United States Congress. "James B. Weaver (id: W000225)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Retrieved on February 13, 2008